Chapter 3: Geospatial Database Technologies

Geographic information systems and interactive databases, including Internet and intranet-enabled technologies, provide structured, systematic, and data quality tools for collecting, storing, analyzing, and disseminating information about areas of the earth as they affect, or are affected by, transportation activities. The number of potential technology applications stemming from these tools is great. The applications selected for evaluation here are intended to serve as a representative sample of those that can be implemented with existing hardware and software. They include:

• Electronic field data collection
• Collaborative planning and design
• Document and process management
• Facility information management systems

General Description

Electronic field data collection refers to the use of portable computing devices (e.g., laptops, palmtops, Windows CE handheld devices) to collect and compile electronic inventories of a variety of geographic feature data (e.g., wildlife habitat, wetlands, land use, historic sites, physical features). In general, these mobile mapping and data collection technologies are capable of displaying image, vector, and tabular data and allow user-defined updates to map layers and their associated attributes. Although low-end products require the data to be transferred into the database after the field activity is complete, the most sophisticated versions support real-time, full-duplex connections to GIS databases using wireless communications. This ability enables immediate synchronization of accurate environmental data into the enterprise database and eliminates the data integrity and resource issues associated with manual field processes. That is, the steps of creating a hard copy map, using it to compile filed information, and then digitizing or transcribing field notes back into the database are eliminated.

Field data collection software brings new flexibility to the data collection process. Geospatial features can be collected on laptop or pen-tablet computers and transferred to a central database. Traditional paper maps and field notebooks are replaced by fully automated equivalents. An advantage of this approach is the ability to compare data directly to geographic features in the real world while out in the field. What’s more, data that often exist only in paper form become automatically available electronically, allowing storage and retrieval and integration into existing databases. Field data collection systems can be used to do field engineering, inventory inspections, environmental surveys, and as-built design updates. A variety of add-on tools are available, including laser range finders, digital cameras, and GPS receivers that assist in field measurements. Field data collection may also take the form of real-time video recording of field conditions.

Geographic Scale Applicability

Technology Examples

TDS Solo Field Data Collection System: TDS has developed a customizable software application for field mapping and data collection that combines maps, images, and databases. The tool is designed to replace paper maps in the field with electronic maps. Any natural, cultural, land use, or social resource typically mapped (or verified) in the field could be recorded on the electronic map and database software. Data can be collected using forms that can then be linked to objects on a map. An electronic map can include the same items that would appear on a paper map.

Software also can be linked to data collection tools such as laser range finders, digital cameras, and GPS receivers. These tools can be used to import data directly into a database. For example, a GPS receiver could be used to map the exact coordinates of a roadway, building, historic artifact, wetland, plant community, or other resource. Notes can be recorded as needed to allow further differentiation (e.g., between similar artifacts or species). A laser range finder could be used to measure the exact distance between two points and automatically upload the information into the correct fields of a database. Completed maps can be easily transferred to office computer systems in a variety of file formats, including AutoCAD, MicroStation, Intergraph, SmallWorld, ESRI, and more.

NPDES and Storm Water Application: Florida Department of Transportation (DOT), in conjunction with the University of Florida Geoplan Center and GeoFocus, Inc., has developed a GIS-based application supporting the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Municipal Separate Storm Water System (MS4). This custom application encompasses database development, field inspections, data tracking, and reporting for storm water structures. The program incorporates two separate methods of field data collection: one using a Trimble data collector built with the Trimble Pathfinder software and the Pro XR GPS receiver and the other using the Trimble Pro XR GPS unit and a pen tablet. The Data Acquisition and Navigation System (DANS) pen-tablet application was developed by GeoFocus, Inc. This application used ESRI Map Objects and Visual Basic and can be applied to many data collection activities. Appendix A includes Web site addresses with more information.

Digital Photolog: Digital photolog technology consists of a high-resolution digital camera mounted on a mobile ground-based platform. This imagery is used as the method for collecting transportation-related features (such as roadway centerlines, bridges, and traffic signs) with full database attribute information. Data collected using this technology populates GIS databases with featuresattributes that can be used independently by planners, designers, and stakeholders to obtain information about the site without field visits. In addition, these data can be used to support facility management systems (pavement management systems, sign inventories, etc.). Using a mobile photolog system in combination with a GPS gives the capability to capture geo-referenced digital images directly to the on-board computer. As each frame is recorded, field staff record inventory features such as traffic signs, bridges, railroad crossings, weigh stations, and mile markers. Ultimately all of the photolog imagery is linked directly to the GIS database of featuresattributes, making it easily accessible from staff desktop computers.

Technology Benefits

In general, mobile mapping and field data acquisition systems make the data collection phase more timely and more accurate. Field data collection software reduces transcription errors and other problems that can result from using paper technology by eliminating several steps in the process. The technology also promotes the collection, accumulation, and future use (e.g., in a database) of electronic data that would otherwise exist only in paper format. Without electronic mapping, handwritten notes are made on paper maps in the field, transported to the office, and then transferred to a computer. This generally requires the data to change hands from field technician to drafter. Data collection equipment such as laser range finders and GPS are more accurate than traditional means of data collection. In addition to providing higher accuracy, these tools can save money over the long term by eliminating steps in data collection, transcription, and distribution. Additional advantages include ground-truthing and immediate data availability and validation. Digital photolog technology is probably the most cost-effective way to create a comprehensive, spatially based, geo-referenced inventory of right-of-way features. Photologging also provides an excellent method for resource documentation. At an average of approximately 100 frames per mile recorded for archival purposes, a complete anthropologicalcultural resource documentation can be created.

Technology Limitations

Field data collection software is becoming increasingly sophisticated. Many applications currently make use of digital cameras, GPS receivers, and laser range finders. However, some items (such as GPS receivers) still have limitations; for example, weather can affect the accuracy and availability of a GPS receiver. Price can initially appear to be a limitation because of the relatively high initial cost of developing tailored software applications and purchasing appropriate hardware (such as weatherized pen computers). However, the initial cost will likely be recovered through reduced collection time and other savings. With digital photologging, much manual inventory of the captured digital imagery is necessary. The presence of a corridor in which to drive the recording vehicle is necessary at the time of data acquisition; this requirement generally precludes the use of this technology for inventorying features of potential new alignments.

General Description

Collaborative planning and design relies on a combination of CAD/CAE and other GIS tools that allow project stakeholders to collaborate in a workshop setting to define alternatives, refine a project design, or resolve specific design/construction-related issues. Multiple sets of data relating to problem identification (accident sites, geometric deficiencies, congested areas, etc.), existing conditions (facility location, slopes, soil types, water table, etc.), constraints and impacts (historic resources, parks, wetlands, high quality wildlife habitat, sensitive receptors, etc.), and other data are displayed on large screens in a group setting. The data can be displayed as individual layers or as multiple layers overlain to provide a visual review of project design or impact attributes. This allows for consideration of environmental issues early in the project development process and for interactive, meaningful involvement of stakeholders in real-time resolution of issues. The technology can be adapted to a virtual format where participants work interactively via the Internet from their own computer workstations.

Delivery Phase Applicability

Most useful at the front end of projects and where input from groups is sought, from planning through preliminary design.

Geographic Scale Applicability

Not dependent on geographic scale of project. Use with larger scale projects (e.g., a several mile corridor); could be conducted on smaller project increments.

Technology Examples

Interstate 83 Community Design Center: As part of identifying alternatives for improvements to an aging and unsafe segment of Interstate 83 near York, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania DOT conducted an extensive collaborative process with community stakeholders. In addition to creating a community advisory committee, project Web site, toll-free number, e-mail address, and newsletters, the core of the effort involved a week-long "community design center" process. Participants could recommend possible roadway alignments and other solutions and see them drawn on a large-screen CAD system while they watched. During the design sessions, project staff also presented background information on the environmental process and on traffic modeling, helping participants develop the same understanding as the project planners and designers. Eight alternatives resulted from the collaborative process. In a subsequent design center session, the alternatives will be evaluated against engineering constraints, cost, the project needs statement, and environmental constraints using a GIS database, again allowing the participants to understand and participate in the alternative design and selection process.

Technology Benefits

The technology has two main advantages that are even more powerful when used together: graphic presentation and interactive communication. Visualization (or other sensory experience) of impacts communicates the information far more effectively than the same information can be conveyed through static maps or text. The possibility of presenting and reviewing the visualizations in a group setting, where aspects of the design can be altered in response to user comments, greatly enhances the project development process. Active participation by stakeholders encourages support of and buy-in to the project, in addition to helping create tested solutions. The interactive element can be expanded to include remote users participating via the Internet.

Technology Limitations

Virtual design projects can be expensive, in particular when used early in a project process when it is not known whether the project actually will be built. However, early use of the technique also can result in later cost savings through early elimination of flawed alternatives. Also, the technique may raise concerns from designers who believe that the virtual design technique is taking over the professional design process.

General Description

Document and process management describes a range of tools that make use of electronic publishing and database features to communicate project information through electronic and online documents; record key steps in the project development process; and track project outcomes, mitigation, and completion of required documents. Four types of tools are discussed:

• Electronic reporting
• Web GIS
• Multimedia administrative record
• Document and outcome tracking software

Delivery Phase Applicability

This technology is applicable at any phase in which data-rich maps or documents are used, in particular when distribution to large or dispersed audiences is needed.

Geographic Scale Applicability

Electronic publishing can be applied to projects of any geographic scale.

Technology Examples

Electronic Reporting

Electronic reporting provides documents in electronic form that can be shared over the Internet or on CD-ROM with reviewers or end users. Rather than lengthy, dry technical documents that are uninviting to the reader, new "virtual" environmental assessments (EAs), environmental impact statements (EISs), and other planning documents can be visually interesting, engaging, informative, and easy-to-use multimedia products that better meet the information needs of many different types of interest groups and individuals.

To create electronic documents, existing word processing and graphics files typically are converted to Adobe Acrobat file(s). Sections that are not currently available electronically (e.g., correspondence) must be scanned and saved as Adobe Acrobat files. Adobe Acrobat allows users to view, print, and navigate (key word search) through a document but does not allow them to save the file as an editable document. The Web site should include a link to download the free Adobe Acrobat Reader for users who do not already have this software; CD-ROMs should incorporate the Adobe Acrobat Reader software.

Online EIS for Hoover Dam Bypass Project: In 1998, a Draft EIS for the Hoover Dam Bypass was published. The project included evaluation of alternatives for a new crossing of the Colorado River near the Hoover Dam to improve mobility and safety in the area. The EIS for this high-visibility project was determined to be well suited to a high-technology, wide-area access approach. In addition to the standard paper EIS, an online EIS with an electronic comment feature was created. The online document provided an opportunity for Internet users to view and print any portion of the document, including all the graphics, maps, figures, and tables. The document was created using the table of contents as a navigation tool, allowing users to click on a chapter or subheading to go directly to that section. Adobe Acrobat allows users a key-word search capability.

In the online electronic comment submittal procedure, users could open the document and, as they read, view button links to comment on that section or chapter. If readers chose to comment, an online form would appear. After providing contact information (name, address, e-mail address, and phone number), users could complete the comment or comments and submit them. Once comments were submitted, an automatic acknowledgement of receipt was e-mailed to the commentor, and comments were transmitted directly to a database maintained as part of the project. The comment form could not be submitted unless the pertinent contact information was provided. The comment database was maintained on a secure server.

Oregon I-5 Corridor Plan: The purpose of this electronic document is to describe existing conditions and deficiencies along the entire I-5 corridor through Oregon as a first step toward identifying corridor problems, solutions, and future project prioritization. The product includes clickable, drill-down maps of the entire corridor with links to snapshot information and detailed text on pavement conditions, structure conditions, intermodal facilities, ITS features, crash data, geometric deficiencies, operational deficiencies, traffic volumes, and environmental resources. Aerial photographs for each mainline segment and interchange are also linked. It was created only in electronic format and will be posted on the Internet and distributed on CD-ROM. Intended users include the state DOT and regional and local government agencies.

Web GIS

A more sophisticated application of electronic reporting is Web GIS, most commonly seen in the form of customized, interactive maps accessed via the Internet. Web GIS allows the distribution of mapped information and the deployment of GIS functionality over the Internet, or over an organization’s intranet or extranet. This technology is having significant impact on how mapped information and databases are delivered to the general public (exemplified by the huge popularity of public Web sites such as realtor.com and mapquest.com). It also improves the way that geographic information is shared within organizations (e.g. local government agencies) or within project groups.

Web GIS sites can offer the end user a range of GIS options, from simple maps and query functions to more sophisticated interactive spatial analyses. These sites often allow the user to produce thematic maps and customize their appearance. Advanced features include optimized route generation and real-time updates of information from remote data collectors (e.g. vehicle locations). Mobile, position-aware Internet devices can benefit from "location services" provided by Web GIS technologies. For example, an Internet device in a vehicle equipped with a GPS unit could display a map of construction activities as the driver approached them.

Web GIS sites designed for limited use to a project team can allow project staff to construct simple maps of relevant project information, such as project alternatives, natural resources distributions, field operations, demographics, etc. Sites equipped with spatial analysis functionality can provide limited corridor evaluation or environmental impact assessment capabilities. The project sites also can facilitate public involvement tasks, for example by mapping the distribution of open house participants by zip code.

Puget Sound Transportation Improvement Program Web GIS: The Puget Sound Regional Council (PSRC) maintains a public Web GIS site that provides maps of the council’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) projects. The map is linked to a database of the TIP project details. The PSRC Web GIS site allows the user to select a location (county, city) and then query the database. The database provides the specific project location, a description of the project, and other project details. The site output can be printed, allowing the user to have customized area-specific maps and data.

Electronic publishing techniques also can be used to create an electronic, multimedia administrative record for a project. As projects are planned and developed, numerous decisions are made along the way. Records of what decisions have been made and why are often buried in paper in large project files. A multimedia administrative record is a permanent and easy-to-navigate electronic file that provides a record of the decision process and includes all official documents and others necessary to explain and record important decisions. This record is especially useful over time in comparison to paper files, because paper records are archived and deteriorate, and institutional knowledge is lost to staff turnover.

Air Force Space Vehicle Launch Program EIS: An electronic administrative record was successfully created and used to track and store project documents as part of a major space vehicle launch program for the U.S. Air Force. The system was desired because of the size and complexity of the project and the level of public interest. A first step was to develop an architecture or hierarchy for file storage and retrieval. For the Air Force project, an Excel spreadsheet was created listing all available documents by category (e.g., EIS, Record of Decision, correspondence, plans and drawings, etc.). Each document was assigned a control number, which also appeared in the spreadsheet and allowed the user to locate the document on one of the five CD-ROMs used to store the entire project record. Depending on the source, documents were either saved electronically or scanned and saved as PDF files.

For efficiency, the record should be created as the project is under way. Creating an electronic administrative record can be resource intensive (word processing, document scanning), depending on the type of source materials and the degree to which they have already been sorted and ordered. The comprehensive nature of the project will eliminate the need to keep any paper copies of project documentation.

Document and Outcome Tracking Software

Regardless of the level of detail used during preliminary design, modifications and refinements typically occur during final design of roadway or other transportation projects—after environmental impacts and mitigation measures have been identified. Often such details and their implications for project development, documentation, and permitting get lost during the subsequent stages of the project.

Post-NEPA-phase tracking tools have been developed and applied successfully to monitor changes in environmental impacts and mitigation commitments and have been used effectively on two Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission expansion projects in southwestern Pennsylvania.

The tools include a set of computerized spreadsheet/database tracking tables that identify the environmental impacts and mitigation commitments contained in the final EIS, a memorandum of agreement, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Record of Decision, and other commitments, including those to meet local requirements. As refinements were made to the project and its right-of-way requirements during final design, any associated changes to environmental impacts were recorded. The tracking tables provided the involved agencies a means to efficiently evaluate the resulting environmental impacts and assess the applicability of the mitigation commitments as defined in the EIS. Then, any refinements in the mitigation commitments were incorporated in the final design plans. The tracking system also was used to promote accountability—for example, by including a sign-off provision when committed mitigation measures were incorporated into final design.

Similar tools could be used ensure that NEPA or similar process requirements are met by scheduling and tracking the processes for document signatures, publication of required notices, scheduling public hearings, and tracking comment periods.

Technology Benefits

Electronic document and process management tools make use of electronic publishing, Internet, and database technologies to improve and broaden project communications and to efficiently and effectively track the often overwhelming and dispersed volume of project documents, decisions, and commitments. Electronic publishing allows for large and complex project documents to be delivered electronically (via Internet or CD-ROM) and presented in a user-friendly format that has the potential to communicate project goals and impacts more effectively than paper documents. Receiving electronic comments not only increases the accessibility of the public comment process to users but can allow for pre-sorting and analysis of comments by agency staff. Particularly for large documents that are expensive to reproduce and mail, electronic publishing may reduce the cost for printing and mailing hard copies of documents. Electronic and multimedia administrative records provide a means for conveniently and efficiently organizing project information and increase the likelihood that the information will be used subsequently rather than being buried in archived paper files. Document and process-tracking software increases the likelihood that mitigation and other project commitments and NEPA requirements will be met.

Technology Limitations

For many purposes, electronic documents do not entirely replace the need for paper copies. For example, an online EIS must still meet all the legal requirements for public availability under NEPA, which will include some distribution of paper copies. Paper copies also likely will be required for the administrative record. Limitations in computer and/or Internet technology may make electronic documents less user-friendly to some users (e.g., time required to load and view complex graphics). The electronic comment process is likely to increase the number of comments that require responses, which may strain agency staff resources. As with their non-electronic counterparts, electronic tracking of the administrative record and project commitments still requires initial set-up (data entry) and subsequent use and updating of the record or database by the appropriate project staff.

General Description

In the context of this project, Facility Information Management Systems (FIMS) are defined as a comprehensive transportation and environmental inventory containing the entire set of environmental (e.g., thematic) data that comprise, support, affect, or are impacted by transport systems. In addition to the transportation infrastructure (e.g., travelways, pavements, bridges, and terminals), the inventory contains data on travel and commodity movements plus other natural and cultural feature information necessary to the transportation facilities life cycle functions. Moreover, the data contained in FIMS ranges from the historical to current to near real-time conditions and improvement activities. This inventory can be thought of as a one-stop data warehouse containing (or providing access to) all information (e.g., tabular, graphic, image, design, and document) used throughout the planning, project development, and systems operations phases.

In addition to containing all in-house transportation and environmental feature data, FIMS also must provide access into data warehouses containing natural, constructed, and social environmental data maintained by other agencies.

Strictly speaking, FIMS are not technologies, nor are they commercial off-the-shelf application software. Rather, they are very large, enterprise-class application systems constructed out of the core technologies discussed in Chapter 1 and incorporating all of the data acquisition and dissemination technologies discussed in this chapter. These transportation and environmental inventories are major public resources with many internal and external users. Standard definitions, common technology platforms, and simple, consumer-grade, and multi-point access mechanisms are crucial ingredients enabling successful exploitation of this major investment.

Delivery Phase Applicability

Geographic Scale Applicability

By definition, FIMS contain all enterprise transportation, environmental, and administrative data, regardless of scale or resolution.

Technology Examples

For transportation work, a highly developed FIMS would include a vast array of data and other information needed to manage the facility-related work of an organization. In this case, the "facility" could be either the entire transportation system or selected components (e.g., roadways, bridges, transit facilities, trails, railroads, etc.). The FIMS could include maps, data, text documents, and audio/video clips related to all aspects of managing the built and natural environment for which the organization is responsible. In addition, project-specific or resource-specific applications could be used.

Natural Resource Impact and Mitigation Monitoring: The FIMS would be a central place from which to implement, manage, and refine a natural resource impact or mitigation monitoring program (e.g., wetlands). Via the Internet and/or intranet, the user could access and update monitoring data (i.e., plant types, growth, other biological data), review project photos and other visual information, access permit requirements, and create periodic monitoring or other reports to indicate progress against plan. On a resourcewide basis, GIS maps linked to the system could be used to review and assess potential mitigation sites and to manage the resources overall (e.g., for cumulative impacts to wetlands). Video information for technical training and health and safety training also could be included.

System Condition and Asset Management: In this example, the information management system could be used to monitor and manage pavement (or other transportation infrastructure) by collecting and centrally tracking information for an entire network or subnetwork. Types of information could include pavement condition (data files and video clips or other visual information), design and construction information, and schedule and costs for repaving and similar improvements. Data initially would be accessed using a clickable map and selecting the geographic area in question. Where construction or fieldwork is involved, searchable operations and maintenance manuals also could be included. Video clips or other visual information also could be used in combination to maximize the life of the facility or to prevent facility degradation. This application could be particularly useful for monitoring and managing the condition of selected special facilities such as historic bridges.

Technology Benefits

The greatest benefit from this technology lies in its data architecture. That is, all data is captured, managed, and accessed in a standard manner known throughout the agency (and beyond). "Stovepipes" of vertically isolated data are dissolved, data redundancy is eliminated, and data quality is both known and assured. This repository provides the foundational data engine used by all enterprise production, management, and public information systems.

Technology Limitations

Enterprisewide FIMS applications are complex and very expensive undertakings, taking years to develop and deploy correctly. Moreover, building a FIMS implies replacing or rewriting all existing legacy applications.