2003 Practical Papers Catalog

2003 Catalog of Practical Papers

2003 TRB Annual Meeting design, materials, and construction research papers of immediate practical interest to State Department of Transportation professionals.

Practical Paper Introduction

SUBJECT AREAS

Bridge, Culvert, and Tunnel Design and Performance

Construction - General Construction

Construction - Pavements

Construction - Structures

Facilities, Equipment Design, and Performance

Maintenance

Materials - Bituminous Materials

Materials - Cement and Concrete

Materials - Mineral Aggregates

Pavement Design and Performance

Pavement Management and Rehabilitation

Pavement Management, Design, and Performance

Railroads - Railway Design, Construction, and Maintenance

Safety

Soils, Geology, and Foundations

INDEX

Bridge, Culvert, and Tunnel Design and Performance
03-2046 - Methodology to Design Protective Strategies for Concrete Bridge Components in Corrosive Environments
03-2146 - Intermediate Diaphragms for Laterally Impacted PC Girder Bridges
03-2497 - William H. Natcher Cable-Stayed Bridge at Owensboro, Kentucky
03-3122 - State of the Art of Early Age Transverse Cracking of Concrete Bridge Decks
03-3170 - Measurement and Evaluation of Mooring Cable Forces During Storm Events on Evergreen Point Floating Bridge
03-3192 - Field Tests and In-Service Monitoring of Newburgh-Beacon Bridge
03-3194 - High-Performance Steel Bridges: Evolution in Nebraska
03-3503 - LRFD Calibration for Wood Bridges
03-3623 - Orthotropic Deck Fatigue Investigation at Triborough Bridge, New York
03-3637 - High-Performance Concrete Structures: Work in Progress
03-3652 - Design and Construction of Precast Bent Caps at TxDOT
03-3804 - Structural Evaluation of Precast Concrete Channel Beams in Bridge Superstructures
03-3876 - Soil Arching over Deeply Buried Thermoplastic Pipe
03-4110 - Guidance on Use of NDE on Voided P-T Concrete Bridge Beams Using Impact Echo
03-4191 - Instrumentation and Field Testing of Doremus Avenue Bridge
03-4319 - Live Load Response of Alabama's High-Performance Concrete Bridge
03-4418 - Development of AASHTO Specifications for FRP-Reinforced Glulam Beams
03-4463 - How Accurate Is Ground-Penetrating Radar for Bridge Deck Condition Assessment?

Construction - General Construction
03-2072 - Multicharacteristic Performance-Related Specification for HMA Pavement: Complete Development Process
03-2503 - Mass Lot Designation for Workmanship Inspection Using Attribute Checklists
03-2646 - Investigation of Root Causes of Delays in Highway Construction
03-2698 - A Study On The Procurement Of Architectural And Engineering Services For Public Works ? A Case For Qualifications-Based Selection (QBS)
03-2790 - Practices to Avoid Delays During Construction Phase of Highway Projects
03-2917 - Toward Comprehensive Policy of Nighttime Construction Work
03-3512 - Successful Application of GPR for Quality Assurance/Quality Control of New Pavements
03-3609 - Process for Selecting Strategies for Rehabilitation of Rigid Pavements Under High Traffic Volumes
03-4240 - Design-Build in the Desert: Innovative Contracting In Rural Setting
03-4407 - Maintenance of Hypertext-Based Specifications for State Highway Projects
03-4527 - Statistical Quality Control and Quality Assurance Evaluation of Structural and Paving Concrete

Construction - Pavements
03-2148 - Air Change in Hydraulic Concrete due to Pumping
03-2301 - Effect of Curing on Roughness Development of Concrete Pavements
03-2334 - Investigation of Tender Zone in Compaction of Coarse-Graded Superpave HMA Mixes
03-2391 - Investigation of Self-Consolidating Concrete
03-2494 - Evaluation of Infared Ignition Furnace for Determination of Asphalt Content
03-3169 - Minnesota's High-Performance Concrete Pavements
03-3204 - Optimizing Opening of PCC Pavements Using Integrated Maturity and Nondestructive Tests
03-3406 - Application of Infrared Imaging and Ground-Penetrating Radar for Detecting Segregation in Hot-Mix Asphalt Overlays
03-3720 - Using a Ride Quality Index for Construction Quality Control and Acceptance Specifications
03-3850 - Technology for Quality Assurance of New Pavement Thickness
03-4014 - Study of Effectiveness of PCC Curing Compounds
03-4120 - Effect of Curing Methods on Early-Age and Drying Shrinkage of High-Performance Concrete

Construction - Structures
03-3603 - Unique Construction Aspects of the Maumee River Bridge: Foundations and Substructure
03-4529 - Simplified Analysis of Heat Curved Steel Girders

Facilities, Equipment Design, and Performance
03-3780 - Evaluation of Highway Signs with Truss Supports
03-4372 - Wind Load Provisions in 2001 Support Specifications

Maintenance
03-3850 - Technology for Quality Assurance of New Pavement Thickness

Materials - Bituminous Materials
03-2126 - Effectiveness of Lime in Hot-Mix Asphalt Pavements
03-2702 - Case Study: Preliminary Field Validation of Simple Performance Tests for Permanent Deformation
03-3117 - Superpave Laboratory Compaction Versus Field Compaction
03-3218 - Precision of Shear Tests Used for Evaluating Asphalt Mixtures
03-3275 - Ultrasonic Pulse Wave Velocity Test as Tool for Monitoring Changes in HMA Mixture Integrity due to Exposure to Moisture
03-3428 - Fatigue Endurance Limit for HIghway and AIrport Pavements
03-3704 - Refinement of New Generation Open-Graded Friction Course
03-3723 - Examination of Gamma-Ray Methods for Measuring Bulk Specific Gravity of Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
03-3875 - Application of Weibull Theory in Asphalt Concrete Fatigue Performance Prediction
03-4065 - Evaluation of Use of Rapid Triaxial Test In Quality Control of Hot-Mix Asphalt
03-4156 - Field Evaluation of Asphalt Additives to Control Rutting and Cracking

Materials - Cement and Concrete
03-2148 - Air Change in Hydraulic Concrete due to Pumping
03-2301 - Effect of Curing on Roughness Development of Concrete Pavements
03-2335 - New Hampshire's Concrete Aggregate and Alkali-Silica Reactivity: Statewide Assessment of Fine and Coarse Aggregate
03-2391 - Investigation of Self-Consolidating Concrete
03-2831 - Mechanical Properties and Durability of BCO and UTW Concrete
03-3204 - Optimizing Opening of PCC Pavements Using Integrated Maturity and Nondestructive Tests
03-3400 - Study of Deterioration in Concrete Pavements Constructed with Slag Coarse Aggregate
03-3702 - Construction of Lithium-Fly Ash Concrete Pavement Test Sections on Interstate 90 in South Dakota
03-3884 - Analysis and Design of Bridge Approach and Transition Slabs in New Jersey
03-3960 - Environmental Influence of Early-Age Response of PCC Pavement
03-4014 - Study of Effectiveness of PCC Curing Compounds
03-4059 - Texas Department of Transportation's Effort to Improve Specifications in Mitigating Concrete Distress due to Alkali-Silica Reactivity
03-4120 - Effect of Curing Methods on Early-Age and Drying Shrinkage of High-Performance Concrete

Materials - Mineral Aggregates
03-2645 - Design of Granular Pavement Layers Considering Climatic Conditions
03-3404 - Validated Model for Predicting Field Performance of Aggregate Base Courses
03-3704 - Refinement of New Generation Open-Graded Friction Course
03-4489 - Field Evaluation of Stiffness of Unbound Aggregate Base Layers in Inverted Flexible Pavements

Pavement Design and Performance
03-2074 - Direct Mehtod for Evaluating Structural Needs of Flexible Pavements Based on FWD Deflections
03-2253 - Network Pavement Evaluation Using Falling Weight Deflectometer and Ground-Penetrating Radar
03-2645 - Design of Granular Pavement Layers Considering Climatic Conditions
03-2657 - Thermal Aspect of Frost-Thaw Pavement Dimensioning: In Situ Measurement and Numerical Modeling
03-3169 - Minnesota's High-Performance Concrete Pavements
03-3222 - Design and Construction of Rock Cap Roadways-A Case Study in Northeast Washington
03-3404 - Validated Model for Predicting Field Performance of Aggregate Base Courses
03-3431 - Comparison of Nondestructive Testing Devices to Determine In Situ Properties of Asphalt Concrete Pavement Layers
03-3720 - Using a Ride Quality Index for Construction Quality Control and Acceptance Specifications
03-4203 - Discrete and Continuous Deflection Testing of Runways at Hartsfield Atlanta International Airport
03-4489 - Field Evaluation of Stiffness of Unbound Aggregate Base Layers in Inverted Flexible Pavements

Pavement Management and Rehabilitation
03-2844 - Enhancing Pavement Management System Through Deficiency Analysis of As-Built Database
03-2947 - Assessing Impact of Bus Traffic on Pavement Maintenance Costs in the City of Los Angeles
03-3190 - Development of Adaptive Performance Models for Oklahoma Airfield Pavement Management System
03-3372 - Creating Asset Management Reports from Local Agency Pavement Management System
03-4439 - Using Historical Pavement Condition Data to Calibrate South Carolina's Performance Prediction Models

Pavement Management, Design, and Performance
03-2210 - Pavement Management Systems: Past, Present, and Future
03-2424 - Development of Flexible Pavement Performance Prediction Model Based on Pavement Data
03-2739 - Performance Prediction Models of Pavement Highway Network in Alberta
03-3341 - Ten-Year Performance of Dowel Bar Retrofit: Application, Performance, and Lessons Learned

Railroads - Railway Design, Construction, and Maintenance
03-4212 - Deep Mixing Technology to Mitigate Ground Vibration Induced by High-Speed Trains

Safety
03-3077 - Development of Trailer-Attenuating Cushion for Variable Message Signs and Arrow Boards
03-3097 - Box-Beam Burster Energy-Absorbing Tube: Bridge Pier (BEAT-BP) Protection System
03-3146 - Design and Testing of Tie-Down Systems for Temporary Barriers
03-4025 - Review of Cable and Wire Rope Barrier Design Considerations
03-4421 - Guardrail Connection for Low-Fill Culverts

Soils, Geology, and Foundations
03-2362 - Comparison of Triaxial Compression Test Results with and Without Suction Control
03-2509 - Filter Paper Column for Measuring Transient Suction Profiles in Expansive Clay
03-2657 - Thermal Aspect of Frost-Thaw Pavement Dimensioning: In Situ Measurement and Numerical Modeling
03-2881 - Design of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composite Piles Under Vertical and Lateral Loads
03-2959 - Engineering Performance of FRP Composite Piling
03-3222 - Design and Construction of Rock Cap Roadways-A Case Study in Northeast Washington
03-3268 - Design Assessment of Founders-Meadows GRS Abutment Structure
03-3286 - Variation in Moduli of Base and Subgrade with Moisture
03-3437 - Measuring Sulfate in Subgrade Soil: Difficulties and Triumphs
03-3457 - Effect of Soil Suction on Resilient Modulus of Subgrade Soil Using Filter Paper Technique
03-3801 - Evaluation of Seasonal Effects on Subgrade Soils
03-3850 - Technology for Quality Assurance of New Pavement Thickness
03-3876 - Soil Arching over Deeply Buried Thermoplastic Pipe
03-3969 - Laboratory Evaluation of the GeoGauge for Compaction Control
03-4212 - Deep Mixing Technology to Mitigate Ground Vibration Induced by High-Speed Trains
03-4505 - Recent Developments in Characterizing Durability of Stabilized Materials

Bridge, Culvert, and Tunnel Design and Performance

03-2046 - Methodology to Design Protective Strategies for Concrete Bridge Components in Corrosive Environments
Premature deterioration of concrete bridge components has been a major concern for the highway agencies. Deterioration results primarily from winter salt applications and exposure to corrosive marine environments causing corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel and subsequent spalling of concrete cover. To prevent premature deterioration, various concrete protective strategies are used on newly constructed concrete bridge components - and in particular on concrete bridge decks - nationwide. Concerns with the prevention of bar corrosion has generally directed development of those strategies. Besides increased bar cover depth, the more common protective strategies are: decreased permeability, epoxy-coated bars, galvanized bars, and corrosion inhibitors. This paper describes a methodology to predict the service life of concrete for a given protective strategy and a corrosive environment. The methodology is primarily based on the diffusion concept which is the main transport mode of corrosive substances from the concrete surface to the reinforcing steel. The paper further employs the methodology and estimates service life of concrete with various protective strategies and in different corrosive environments. The methodology can be used to design protective systems for concrete bridge components for any desired service life.
Khossrow Babaei, Wilbur Smith Associates, kbabaei@wilbursmith.com

03-2146 - Intermediate Diaphragms for Laterally Impacted PC Girder Bridges
Bridge engineers are concerned about the response of precast concrete (PC) girder bridges, which are hit by over-height-vehicle loads. The roll of intermediate diaphragms in providing impact-damage protection to the PC girders is not clearly defined. An analytical study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of intermediate diaphragms in reducing the damage to the girders of a PC girder bridge that is struck by an over-height object on a highway vehicle. Also, the study investigated whether a structural steel, intermediate diaphragm would essentially provide the same degree of impact protection to the PC girders as that provided by a reinforced concrete (RC), intermediate diaphragm. Finite-element models were developed for non-skewed and skewed, PC girder bridges. Each model was analyzed with one RC and two types of steel intermediate diaphragms that were located at the mid-span of an interior span of the bridge. The bridge models were analyzed for a lateral-impact load that was applied to the bottom flange of the exterior girders at the intermediate diaphragm location and away from the diaphragm location. The induced strains and displacements in the girders were established for each intermediate diaphragm case. When a lateral-impact load was applied at the diaphragm location, the RC, intermediate diaphragm provided more protection for the girders than that provided by the two types of structural steel, intermediate diaphragms. The three types of intermediate diaphragms provided essentially the same degree of impact protection for the PC girders when the load was applied away from the diaphragm location.
Fouad S. Fanous, Iowa State University, fanous@iastate.edu

03-2497 - William H. Natcher Cable-Stayed Bridge at Owensboro, Kentucky
To compete effectively with an economically designed concrete alternate bridge crossing of the Ohio River required an innovative steel alternate cable-stayed bridge. Just such a structure is nearing completion. The river at the project site is approximately 6.4 kilometers wide between the states of Kentucky and Indiana. Most of the area is a floodplain, which gets inundated at least once a year. As a result, the main bridge, which is 1,375 meters long, requires a long approach on the Kentucky side. This approach consists of embankments and relief structures to allow for the passage of flood waters. This paper discusses the many noteworthy aspects of the William Natcher Bridge.
     Vijay  Chandra, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Inc., chandrav@pbworld.com
     Steve  Goodpastor, Kentucky Transportation Cabinet
     Ruchu  Hsu, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Inc.

03-3122 - State of the Art of Early Age Transverse Cracking of Concrete Bridge Decks
This state-of-the-art-report presents the results of a comprehensive literature review on the cause of transverse deck cracking. It includes experimental and analytical research results as well as survey studies on the effects of different factors on concrete deck cracking. Consistent with past work on the subject, causes are classified under three categories, namely: 1) material and mix design, 2) construction practice and ambient condition factors, and 3) structural design. Areas for further research are identified and recommendations for reducing transverse cracking are presented.
Rambod Hadidi, Rutgers University, rambodh@rci.rutgers.edu
M. Ala Saadeghvaziri, New Jersey Institute of Technology

03-3170 - Measurement and Evaluation of Mooring Cable Forces During Storm Events on Evergreen Point Floating Bridge
On January 20, 1993, the Evergreen Point Floating Bridge incurred structural damage at two mooring cables and at various other locations during a storm event of approximately the 20-year return period magnitude. The two mooring cables damaged were the shorter and stiffer cables located at the ends of the bridge and were likely damaged due to load attraction issues. Following the 1993 storm, special replacement cables were installed near the areas where cable distress was noted to improve the performance of the floating bridge during storms. Measurements of cable forces were made during the winter season of 2001-2002 to evaluate the effectiveness of the replacement mooring cables. From the experimental measurements, it was found that the special replacement mooring cables have reduced the load attraction at the shorter end cables with respect to cable tension values reported for the pre-retrofit analysis. However, the measurements indicate that the replacement cables continue to attract loads between 65% and 80% higher than those measured at the longer and more flexible cables located near the midspan of the floating bridge during storm events of approximately the 1-year return period magnitude.
     Scott T Peterson, Washington State University
     David I McLean, Washington State University, mclean@wsu.edu
     Mark  Anderson, Washington State Depertment of Transportation
     David G. Pollock, Washington State University

03-3192 - Field Tests and In-Service Monitoring of Newburgh-Beacon Bridge
Field tests previously conducted on the Newburgh-Beacon bridge in New York captured anomalous stress ?spikes? in the critical hangers of the truss bridge. The spikes occurred without warning and under varying conditions; the magnitude of the spikes were significantly higher than the stresses due to service loads. The cause and nature of the spikes was of great concern to the bridge owner, the New York State Bridge Authority. The spikes were thought to be due to some combination of wind, thermal effects or an unlocking of stresses due to fabrication errors in the pin-and-hangers systems. A series of short- and long-term field tests were recently conducted on the bridge to help identify the cause of the spikes. Sections of the bridge were instrumented around two different pin-and-hanger members. Tests were conducted for ambient traffic and permit vehicles. One site was also continuously monitored for over three months to obtain statistical data on the spikes. A series of conventional and innovative sensors were used in the long-term monitoring phase of the project. Through a series of different test setups, designed to ?debug? the problem, the anomalous spikes were found to be caused by radio interference (RF) in the environment, which was being picked up by the strain gage wires. The paper describes the test setup, test program and results of the tests. The tests resolved a long-standing concern of the bridge authority and avoided costly and unnecessary retrofits.
     Harry W. Shenton III, University of Delaware, shenton@ce.udel.edu
     Michael  Chajes, University of Delaware
     Bala  Sivakumar, Lichtenstein Consulting Engineers
     William W. Finch, Structural Testing, Inc.

03-3194 - High-Performance Steel Bridges: Evolution in Nebraska
The first High Performance Steel Bridge to open to traffic in U.S. is located in Snyder Nebraska. This bridge opened to traffic on December 1997. Since then State of Nebraska has been one of the leading states to use High Performance Steel in number of innovative bridge structures. This paper provides description of major bridges in State of Nebraska using High Performance Steel and their significance in advancing use of High Performance Steel. The first use of High Performance Steel (Snyder Bridge) in Nebraska was simply in the form of substituting HPS-485W (485 MPa High Performance Steel) for a bridge that was designed assuming construction would use conventional 345 MPa steel. The second major bridge, Dodge Street Bridge, represent the first application of HPS-485W in the U.S., in the optimum hybrid form. The third bridge, Springview Bridge, using optimum arrangement of the HPS, provided an alternative that was more economical than Prestress Concrete Alternate, for span ranges that traditionally had in the past utilized Prestressed concrete girder. The Fourth major bridge, Two Box System, design of which has been completed, uses HPS-485W in small box form and utilizes several innovative details that makes the construction of the bridge very economical. This paper provides the overview of major aspects of these bridges.
     Atorod  Azizinamini, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, aazizi@unl.edu
     Kristi  Van Ooyen, Nebraska Department of Roads
     Fouad  Jaber, Nebraska Department of Roads
     Sam  Fallaha, Nebraska Department of Roads

03-3503 - LRFD Calibration for Wood Bridges
The paper presents the calibration procedure and background data for the development of design code provisions for wood bridges. The structural types considered include sawn lumber stringers, glued-laminated girders, and various wood deck types. Load and resistance parameters are treated as random variables, and therefore, the structural performance is measured in terms of the reliability index. The statistical parameters of dead load and live (traffic) load, are based on the results of previous studies. Material resistance is taken from the available test data, which includes consideration of the post-elastic response. The resistance of components and structural systems is based on the available experimental data and finite element analysis results. Statistical parameters of resistance are computed for deck and girder subsystems as well as individual components. The reliability analysis was performed for wood bridges designed according to the AASHTO Standard Specifications and a significant variation in reliability indices was observed. The recommended load and resistance factors are provided that result in consistent levels of reliability at the target levels.
Andrzej S. Nowak, University of Michigan, nowak@umich.edu
Christopher D Eamon, Mississippi State University

03-3623 - Orthotropic Deck Fatigue Investigation at Triborough Bridge, New York
The Triborough Bridge connects the Manhattan, Queens and Bronx boroughs in New York City. The bridge has suspended spans with a total length of 2,700 feet (823 m). The existing deteriorated concrete deck is being replaced with an orthotropic steel deck to reduce the dead load carried by the main cables. Prior to the deck replacement reconstruction, a prototype steel orthotropic deck was placed on the main span for a length of 120 feet (36.6 m) to investigate the fatigue strength at the fatigue sensitive areas under the static and dynamic loads of the AASHTO fatigue truck and normal traffic. Approximately 300 strain gages were installed at the critical locations at the cutouts of the subfloor beam webs, the toe of the rib weld, deck weld and bolted splice locations. Traffic monitoring was conducted for the critical locations over a thirty-day period. The results from three phases of the strain gage testing, including influence lines and traffic monitoring data, were used to calculate fatigue stress ranges and the expected fatigue life for each detail. The results from the strain gage testing were compared with the results obtained from finite element analysis. The LRFD - AASHTO criteria were utilized. It was observed that the heavy trucks on the bridge caused fatigue stresses higher than what had been anticipated by the AASHTO. The investigation of the three phases of the strain gage testing resulted in modifying the design in order to obtain a longer service life under heavy truck traffic.
Wuzhen Zhang, Ammann & Whitney, wzhang@ammann-whitney.com

03-3637 - High-Performance Concrete Structures: Work in Progress
Success constructing durable concrete bridges depends on several parameters. Proper design and detailing go part of the way to success, but even the best design is affected by the fact that for state transportation contracts the lowest bidder gets the work. For that reason, crafting precise specifications to instruct contractors, educating the bridge design and construction community on new technologies, and vigorously enforcing contract plans during construction are the keys to obtaining structures that will be around for a long time. This paper presents the experience of the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) specifying the use of High Performance Concrete (HPC) for bridges, and it provides commentary on how early uses of HPC focused on strength, obtaining the added benefit of improved durability. However, now that concrete strengths normally suited for the majority of bridge structures can be routinely provided by the contracting community, the exciting part of the HPC definition is determining how to get more durable concrete. TxDOT specifications for HPC were initially performance-based, leaving the contractor with options for how to provide the end product. Currently, the specifications that accompany contracts with special emphasis on durability are mostly prescriptive. TxDOT believes that when contractors are aware of project requirements, there is less uncertainty, resulting in better prices and fewer project delays.
William R Cox, Texas Department of Transportation
Kevin R. Pruski, Texas Department of Transportation, kpruski@dot.state.tx.us

03-3652 - Design and Construction of Precast Bent Caps at TxDOT
The Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) is increasing the use and advancing the state of the art of precast bent caps for bridges. Use of precast bent caps helps build bridges in congested and limited access work zones, and it helps minimize traffic disruptions and improve work zone safety by moving work out of the work zone. Design of precast bent caps requires special attention to the cap-to-column connection. TxDOT has sponsored research to analyze cap-to-column behavior and improve design methodology. Projects built by TxDOT that use precast bent caps demonstrate the design methodology used, including implementation of research results.
     Gregg  Freeby, Texas Department of Transportation
     Michael  Hyzak, Texas Department of Transportation
     Kenneth  Ozuna, Texas Department of Transportation
     John P. Vogel, Texas Department of Transportation
     Lloyd  Wolf, Texas Department of Transportation
     Ronald D. Medlock, Texas Department of Transportation, RMedloc@dot.state.tx.us

03-3804 - Structural Evaluation of Precast Concrete Channel Beams in Bridge Superstructures
During the period from the mid-1950?s through the mid-1970?s a large number of bridges were constructed throughout Arkansas using a, then standard, 5.79 m (19 ft) long precast, non-prestressed, concrete channel beam. A survey of highway departments has identified twelve states which have used a similar bridge element in the past. It has been determined that nearly 400 of these bridges remain in use in Arkansas alone. Recently, the Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department (AHTD) discovered that a number of these sections are exhibiting potentially serious deterioration. The deterioration appears to have been initiated by the corrosion of the flexural reinforcement in the beam stems. An additional issue is the fact that these beams were fabricated without any shear reinforcement. Moreover, some sections are also showing signs of concrete degradation. Thus, the need to determine the in-place load capacity, serviceability, and durability of these sections has reached a critical level. To date, 20 beams have been removed from existing structures and tested for their flexural load capacity as well as the material properties of the concrete and longitudinal reinforcement. Results have varied depending upon the extent of any deterioration. However, in nearly every case shear failure has controlled the load capacity of a section. Based on this research, a draft field guide, intended for use by inspection crews, is being prepared. This guide will aid inspectors in prioritizing sections for repair, rehabilitation, or removal.
     Stephan Anthony Durham, University of Arkansas, sadurha@engr.uark.edu
     Ernest  Heymsfield, University of Arkansas
     John J Schemmel, University of Arkansas

03-3876 - Soil Arching over Deeply Buried Thermoplastic Pipe
This paper discusses soil arching associated with buried thermoplastic pipe. First, the soil arching phenomenon is described. Then, two different approaches are mentioned from literature to represent the degree of soil arching (or vertical arching factor). The elastic solutions of Burns and Richard are revisited to derive expressions for the vertical soil arching factor for buried pipe. Upon comparing the elastic solutions to the field soil pressure cell readings, the importance of incorporating bending stiffness ratio is clearly observed. With this finding, the AASHTO method for calculating the load on buried pipe is evaluated against the elastic solutions. The analysis reveals that the AASHTO method is too conservative, overestimating the load on thermoplastic pipe by 50 to 80%. Further evidences to support the finding are found in the strain gage readings taken on the pipe walls in the field. Therefore, the alternative equations derived directly from the elastic solutions are recommended to predict the load on buried thermoplastic pipe, instead of the AASHTO method.
Shad M. Sargand, Ohio University, ssargand@bobcat.ent.ohiou.edu
Teruhisa Masada, Ohio University

03-4110 - Guidance on Use of NDE on Voided P-T Concrete Bridge Beams Using Impact Echo
Guidance is given on the use of Impact Echo (I-E) testing, which can be useful in detecting voids in grout in post-tensioned tendon ducts in prestressed concrete bridge elements. It is well known that voids in grouted ducts can lead to ingress of water and to corrosion of the tendon wires. Voids can also reduce the integrity of the post-tensioned member in that fractured wires are not encased in grout and cannot therefore rebond themselves either side of the fracture. This paper should assist the bridge maintenance engineer in preparing a survey of post-tensioned members to establish the likelihood of there being voids in the grouted ducts.
     Michael C Forde, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, m.forde@ed.ac.uk
     Maxwell  Clark, TRL Limited, United Kingdom
     Jack  Halliday, Highways Agency, United Kingdom
     Jon  Watson, Physical Acoustics Ltd., United Kingdom

03-4191 - Instrumentation and Field Testing of Doremus Avenue Bridge
In 2007, the American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) will adopt the Load and Resistance Factored Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specifications as the mandatory standard by which all future bridge structures will be designed. New Jersey has committed to the adoption of the LRFD Specifications since January 2000. The LRFD Specifications considers the variability in the behavior of structural elements through the use of extensive statistical analyses to ascertain the behavioral variability and continues to be refined and improved. However, many of the Specifications? design approaches and methodologies have been adopted with limited experimental validation. There is a need to validate and/or simplify these new design procedures and models. The Doremus Avenue Bridge structure, located in Newark, NJ, is New Jersey?s initial LRFD design. The construction project involved replacement of an existing bridge structure that primarily carries truck traffic into the State?s air- and sea ports. The main objective of this paper is to present results from a study to evaluate the analytical as well as field behavior of the Doremus Avenue Bridge. The study was implemented in two phases: 1) development of a detailed Finite Element Model (FEM) that incorporates the nonlinear behavior of concrete material, and 2) the planning and optimization of instrumentation schemes and sensor location, and 3) field testing and long term condition monitoring of the bridge. The end result is to provide a methodology that will enable New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) to successfully update their design provisions.
     Hani H Nassif, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, nassif@rci.rutgers.edu
     Nakin  Suksawang, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
     Mayrai  Gindy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
     Talat  Abu-Amra, Rutgers University
     Joe  Davis, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

03-4319 - Live Load Response of Alabama's High-Performance Concrete Bridge
Results are reported from live load tests performed on Alabama?s high performance concrete (HPC) showcase bridge. Load distribution factors, deflections, and stresses measured during the tests are compared with values calculated using the provisions of the AASHTO LRFD and AASHTO Standard Specifications. Measured dynamic amplification of load effects was approximately equal to or less than predicted by both specifications. Distribution factors from both specifications were found to be conservative. Deflections computed according to AASHTO LRFD suggestions matched best with the measured deflections?overestimating the maximum deflections by 20 percent or less. Bottom flange stresses computed using AASHTO distribution factors were significantly larger than measured values. AASHTO LRFD provisions suggest a special procedure for the computation of exterior girder distribution factors in bridges with diaphragms. When two or more lanes were loaded, this special procedure did not reflect the actual behavior of the bridge and resulted in very conservative distribution factors for exterior girders. Further research is recommended to correct this deficiency.
     J Michael Stallings, Auburn University
     Robert W. Barnes, Auburn University, rbarnes@eng.auburn.edu
     Paul W. Porter, Auburn University

03-4418 - Development of AASHTO Specifications for FRP-Reinforced Glulam Beams
FRP-glulams are obtained by reinforcing the tension and/or compression sides of glued laminated (glulam) beams with Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRP). This paper describes a mechanics-based numerical model for FRP-glulam beams that is being used to develop AASHTO bridge design specifications. The paper compares the model?s 5th percentile Modulus of Rupture and bending stiffness predictions with those calculated from 250 laboratory beam test results. The model shows excellent agreement with the laboratory test results, particularly in its ability to predict 5th percentile values which form the basis for wood design properties. FRP Tension reinforcement was observed to significantly increase girder bending strength (by over 100%) and to a lesser extent bending stiffness (by 10%-20%). Reinforcement also reduces variability in mechanical properties which allows for higher design values. The model shows that the volume effect in FRP-glulam beams gradually disappears with increasing tension reinforcement ratios, and that the volume effect is eliminated at an E-glass tension reinforcement ratio of 2%. This result is particularly significant for long non-southern pine glulam girders where the volume effect may reduce bending strength by up to 30%. Tension reinforcement also increases ductility which provides for a safer failure mechanism. Ductility ratios near 3 have been calculated from beam laboratory test results. With the increased strength and elimination of the volume effect, the smaller, high-performance FRP-glulam bridge girders may present a viable alternative to conventional glulams.
Habib J Dagher, University of Maine
Robert F. Lindyberg, University of Maine, robert_lindyberg@umit.maine.edu

03-4463 - How Accurate Is Ground-Penetrating Radar for Bridge Deck Condition Assessment?
As Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is increasingly employed for assessing the condition of bridge decks, quantifying and controlling the quality of GPR data becomes an important challenge. This paper introduces a methodology to assess the accuracy of deck condition measures, and demonstrates the methodology in a case study involving real data. The latter are generated during GPR applications on a large bridge deck, and are processed using a commercial image-processing algorithm. The measures extracted from the processed GPR data are the rebar reflection amplitude and the dielectric constant of the deck material. The accuracy of the GPR assessments is evaluated by comparing the core data (!?ground truth!?) to the GPR measures. The methodology uses appropriate statistical characteristic curves for quality control. It is based on a use of data to plot the probabilities of true detection vs. false detection. Image interpretation requires the use of a threshold value (typically established from experience) selected as to optimize true and false detection rates. The results of the case study show that rebar reflection data detect defects of the bridge decks at 75 percent true detection rate with 15 percent false detection rate. However, the results using the dielectric constant data fail to discriminate defects from the decks. The reason for this is attributed to the presence of latex modified concrete (LMC) overlay on the bridge deck, and the fact that values of the dielectric constant are derived from surface reflection data. Findings from the analysis and important conclusions are presented and discussed.
Heejeong Shin, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, shinh3@rpi.edu
Dimitri A Grivas, IIAM

Construction - General Construction

03-2072 - Multicharacteristic Performance-Related Specification for HMA Pavement: Complete Development Process
At a time when there is great interest in developing performance-related specifications incorporating multiple quality characteristics, and several highly complex approaches are currently under development, it is questioned whether these procedures will be capable of providing the degree of practicality and ease of application sought by most practitioners. Alternatively, it is claimed that there is a simple, straightforward procedure that is suitable for most practical purposes. The components of this procedure have been successfully applied by the New Jersey Department of Transportation over a period of many years, and it is argued that additional complexity is rarely necessary or beneficial. An example is presented illustrating how readily obtainable data can be used, first to develop the performance model and then to develop the acceptance procedure for a specification for in-place air voids, thickness, and smoothness of HMA pavement. The example is presented in sufficient detail to demonstrate the ease with which this procedure can be learned and applied by individuals having only a basic background in engineering mathematics.
Richard M. Weed, Consulting Engineer, rmweed@aol.com

03-2503 - Mass Lot Designation for Workmanship Inspection Using Attribute Checklists
Construction workmanship can be inspected under the general modes of examination or dimensional measurement. The technical procedures developed by the highways materials mode which make inspection information more objective and consistent can be applied to workmanship. An important step in improving consistency in measurement of product quality is to define the lots being inspected. A mass lot consists of a unified or undifferentiated body of material or product; the components of the lot tend to be uniform in appearance. Attribute checklists are used to inspect workmanship. The inspector marks each attribute as conforming, nonconforming, or not applicable, which is a ?direct attribute classification.? Attribute checklists are also used to document the results of dimensional measurements, which are termed ?variable to attribute classifications.? Procedures are explained to quantify checklist results, which can be used as tolerances for workmanship quality. One sample is considered one completed checklist. One to several checklists can be completed for each lot. Examples are given of mass lot applications to three types of specifications. For a methods specification for asphalt rubber, a lot encompasses the product constructed by a process until the process changes. For an end product specification, the lot for the checklist is defined the same as for the quality lots for materials. For placement of reinforcing steel, the lot is defined as the tied mat for a particular structural member. These methods capture inspector information which can be used for product improvement, research, incentives, inspection management, and specification improvement.
Allan F. Samuels, Arizona Department of Transportation, asamuels@dot.state.az.us

03-2646 - Investigation of Root Causes of Delays in Highway Construction
The timely completion of highway construction projects is an important objective. A significant annoyance to the public occurs when important projects are not started in a timely manner and when the actual progress of the construction work is longer than necessary, thereby prolonging the inconvenience. Economic and social welfare, and safety are all related to timely completions. In spite of the importance of timely completion, construction delays remain a common occurrence. This paper reports on the first phase of NCHRP 20-24(12) ?Avoiding Delays During the Construction Phase of Highway Projects?. The root causes of highway construction delays were investigated and identified by the researchers. A survey of State Highway Agencies (SHAs), Highway Contractors, Design Consultants, and various professional organizations was conducted. An analysis of project records was performed to identify the most frequent reasons for adding time to construction projects. Site visits and in-depth interviews were conducted with SHA and contractor personnel in six states. Case studies on specific contract time extensions were developed as a tool to discover the root cause of the delays. A listing of the most common root causes of delays is provided. A set of fundamental principals necessary for improving the time performance on highway construction is presented.
     Ralph D. Ellis, University of Florida, relli@ce.ufl.edu
     H. Randolph Thomas, Pennsylvania State University
     Jennifer Ann Hicks, Pennsylvania State University

03-2698 - A Study On The Procurement Of Architectural And Engineering Services For Public Works ? A Case For Qualifications-Based Selection (QBS)
This report outlines the findings of a recent study performed on the procurement of professional architectural and engineering (A/E) services in New York City in an attempt to evaluate some of the claims put forward by proponents and opponents of qualifications-based selection (QBS) of such services. QBS is a federally mandated requirement enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1972, in recognition of the need for improvements in the way professional A/E services are procured. The law, commonly referred to as ?Brooks Law?, requires that architects and engineers be selected on the basis of their professional qualifications, and subject to negotiation of a fair and reasonable compensation of such services. One of the states that adopted QBS is New York State (a total of 41 states had adopted it as of the end of 2001), but the New York State law does not cover local jurisdictions, and New York City continues to use competitive pricing as its primary method of selecting architectural and engineering contractors, citing numerous advantages of the current system as well as disadvantages of the proposed QBS method. The study outlined in this report was based on past literature as well as recently procured projects in New York City (1997-1999), as presented by the New York City?s Mayor?s Office of Contracts during a Public Hearing on QBS (December 1999).
SYMEON CHRISTODOULOU, Polytechnic University, schristo@poly.edu

03-2790 - Practices to Avoid Delays During Construction Phase of Highway Projects
The mission of our state transportation agencies is to provide safe and efficient transportation systems. This necessitates a process of continued infrastructure renewal. Existing facilities are modified and upgraded, and new systems are added. However, the resulting construction process can be a significant detriment to the safety and efficiency of existing transportation systems. It is therefore important that construction operations be accomplished as efficiently and quickly as possible. Generally, when construction durations are reduced, the negative affects of the construction process to the users is also reduced. The first step in reducing construction time is to avoid delays in project completion. This paper presents specific recommendations for improvement developed in NCHRP 20-24(12) ?Avoiding Delays During the Construction Phase of Highway Projects?. The research approach included a survey of a wide cross section of transportation professionals, review and analysis of project delay information, site visits to six states including Florida, California, Georgia, South Carolina, New York, and Wisconsin. Interviews were conducted with central office personnel (including legal counsel), district or regional personnel, and site personnel. Additional interaction was had with contractors, contractor trade associations, consultants, and construction managers. The root causes of highway construction delays are first identified. Specific recommendations were developed based upon identified root causes and a set of fundamental principals. Additionally, implementation issues are discussed.
Ralph D. Ellis, University of Florida, relli@ce.ufl.edu
H. Randolph Thomas, Pennsylvania State University

03-2917 - Toward Comprehensive Policy of Nighttime Construction Work
This paper presents a first approximation to a comprehensive policy of nighttime construction work that is based on the explicit consideration of three main aspects: (a) the travel time savings produced by nighttime construction work; (b) the impact that nighttime work has upon human factors (e.g., sleep deprivation, working hours, impact on family and social life); and (c) the impact that pay differentials for nighttime workers would have upon project costs. The travel time and economic savings of nighttime work were estimated by means of traffic simulations for a variety of cases. The human factor analyses relied on field surveys and interviews that targeted: highway engineers, construction workers, field supervisors, and contractors. This research found ample evidence of long working hours, long commutes to work, sleep deprivation social and family/social disruption associated with night work. The workers interviewed agreed unanimously that nighttime work has a negative impacts on their: (a) body rhythms; and (b) social and family lives. In the final section of the paper, a set of policy recommendations are discussed and analyzed. A set of four policy measures are discussed: (a) four days work week; (b) pay differentials to nighttime workers; (c) itemization of police enforcement costs; and (d) temporary accommodations.
     Jose  Holguin-Veras, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, jhv@rpi.edu
     Kaan M. A. Ozbay, Rutgers University
     Robert F Baker, City College of New York
     David  Sackey, City College of New York
     Angel  Medina, City College of New York

03-3512 - Successful Application of GPR for Quality Assurance/Quality Control of New Pavements
This paper presents the successful application of ground penetrating radar (GPR) as a quality assurance/quality control tool to measure the layer thicknesses of newly built pavement systems. This study was conducted on a newly built test section of Route 288 located near Richmond, Virginia. The test section is a three-lane, 370m-long flexible pavement system composed of a granular base layer and three different hot-mix asphalt (HMA) lifts. Ground penetrating radar surveys were conducted on each lift of the hot-mix asphalt layers after they were constructed. To estimate the layer thicknesses, GPR data was analyzed using simplified equations in the time domain. The accuracy of the GPR system results was checked by comparing the GPR predicted thicknesses to thicknesses measured directly on a large number of cores taken from the different HMA lifts. This comparison revealed a mean thickness error of 2.9% for HMA layers ranging between 100mm (4in) and 250mm (10in) in thickness. This error is similar to the one obtained from direct measurement of core thickness.
     Imad L. Al-Qadi, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, alqadi@vt.edu
     Samer  Lahouar, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
     Amara  Loulizi, Virginia Tech Transportation Institute

03-3609 - Process for Selecting Strategies for Rehabilitation of Rigid Pavements Under High Traffic Volumes
Many highway facilities are experiencing rapid deterioration due to high traffic volumes and a service life that has been extended beyond facility design life. State highway agencies (SHAs) are under pressure to mitigate resulting poor pavement conditions through maintenance, rehabilitation, and reconstruction (MRR) work while accelerating construction, minimizing traffic disruption, reducing accident risk, and improving public acceptance. SHAs have a range of engineering processes for pavement analysis and design. These pavement-related processes focus on pavement condition and causes of pavement distresses to identify appropriate pavement treatments. Pavement-related processes determine ?what is done.? Traffic and construction management processes, nonpavement-related, are also commonly considered to identify ?how the pavement treatment is accomplished.? Little information is available on how to integrate these nonpavement-related processes into the MRR strategy selection process for rigid pavements. This paper describes a process that integrates both the pavement- and nonpavement-related aspects of MRR strategy selection. A framework is presented that provides the basis for a review of literature and collecting data on current practice. A process modeling technique is used to develop details of the selection process. Case studies were developed using four projects to validate the process. Practical illustrations from case study projects are presented that demonstrate several key steps of the process with respect to traffic and construction related issues that influence selection of the most appropriate MRR strategy for rigid pavements under high traffic volumes.
     Stuart D. Anderson, Texas A&M University, s-anderson5@tamu.edu
     Gerald L Ullman, Texas Transportation Institute
     Byron C. Blaschke, Texas Transportation Institute

03-4240 - Design-Build in the Desert: Innovative Contracting In Rural Setting
This paper presents recent innovations by the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT) in the areas of work zone operations, public relations and partnering for highway construction. Explosive population growth in Arizona has pushed ADOT to the limits of its capacity and challenged the Department to develop innovative ways to stretch its resources to meet the constituents? needs. In 1996 legislation was passed enacting a pilot design-build program aimed at completing public construction projects more rapidly than could be done using traditional methods. This paper describes the third project in the program that involved the reconstruction and widening 13.7 miles of State Route 68, a primary two-lane highway carrying 10,000 vehicles per day between Kingman AZ and Bullhead City AZ. The Department?s Kingman District Engineer spearheaded an effort that incorporated several innovative techniques on the project both in terms of work zone operations enhancements and advanced partnering and public relations efforts which were necessary to maintain traffic flow, and keep all of the stake holders engaged in the effort. These innovations included a unique travel time incentive program, a motorist assist patrol, a lane rental clause in the contract, and an aggressive partnering program.
     James J Ernzen, Arizona State University, james.ernzen@asu.edu
     Debra R Brisk, Arizona Department of Transportation
     Debra  Drecksel, Consultant
     Jennifer  Livingston, Arizona Department of Transportation

03-4407 - Maintenance of Hypertext-Based Specifications for State Highway Projects
Performance of construction projects heavily depends on how well information is managed. This report provides the details of the development and maintenance of an Electronic Reference Library (ERL). The ERL is issued twice a year by the Iowa Department of Transportation, and contains a cross-referenced and searchable version of the state?s standard specifications and drawings. The major challenges for developing an ERL include determining the user interface, selecting documents, reproducing accurate content, and maintaining the electronic version.
Russell Craig Walters, Iowa State University, rwalters@iastate.edu

03-4527 - Statistical Quality Control and Quality Assurance Evaluation of Structural and Paving Concrete
This paper discusses the variability associated with the production, construction and testing of structural and paving concrete. The study evaluates data from over 900 projects constructed during 1992 through 1999 representing over 25,000 lots. The data was collected from the Louisiana DOTD?s computerized MATT system. The analysis also evaluation indicated: (1) an overall reduction of less than 0.2% price reduction for structural concrete and about 0.5% for paving concrete; (2) thickness of concrete cores to be the major contributor to the overall price reduction in paving concrete; (3) good control in the production and testing of structural concrete; and (4) increase in the non-uniformity of paving concrete acceptance criteria. Recommendations include a need to maintain better control on the variability of paving concrete tests through application of control chart and/or variability unknown type of specifications: and a need for continued evaluation, such as the presented her, for monitoring the overall quality control and quality assurance program of the DOTD.
     Ravinder M. Diwan, Southern University and A&M College
     Shashikant  Shah, Consulting Engineer
     John  Eggers, Louisiana Transportation Research Center, jeggers@dotd.state.la.us

Construction - Pavements

03-2148 - Air Change in Hydraulic Concrete due to Pumping
Certain amount of air content in concrete plays an important role in the durability of concrete. Excess air may reduce the strength of the concrete, while inadequate air will result in premature deterioration of the concrete due to scaling caused by freeze-thaw cycles and deicing chemicals. Pumping of hydraulic concrete has been a common practice for placing concrete. Although the air content before pumping is relatively easy to control, the air change during pumping has not been well understood. This study was to investigate the change in air content of hydraulic concrete due to pumping in several aspects. Air content, along with other properties, of concrete before and after the pump was measured in 36 construction projects in two phases. Analysis on data from 31 projects in Phase I indicated that most presented air loss during pumping. Many factors could affect the air change. Analysis on data from five projects in Phase II indicated that sampling methods had a moderate effect on the air change. Errors in measurement were minimal for certified testers and calibrated pots. The air change of concrete was significantly affected by the configuration of the boom, in addition to the air content before pumping. Attachments to the boom played key roles in reducing the air loss. Two mathematical models were developed for the prediction of air loss.
     Khaled  Ksaibati, University of Wyoming, khaled@uwyo.edu
     Menglan  Zeng, University of Wyoming
     Fane  Sellers, University of Wyoming
     Charles  Dolan, University of Wyoming

03-2301 - Effect of Curing on Roughness Development of Concrete Pavements
This paper deals with the results of a study of effect of curing on as-constructed smoothness and subsequent, roughness development on Portland Cement Concrete Pavements (PCCP) in Kansas. Ten test sections on five newly built PCCP projects on Interstate routes 70 and 135 were selected in this study. At each project, one section was cured with a double application of curing compound compared to a single application currently specified. Some sections were instrumented with thermocouples to collect temperature data at the bottom of the PCCP slab during construction. Large temperature gradients between the top and the bottom of the PCCP slab were observed during concrete placement. Double curing compound application tends to decrease this temperature gradient. Periodic longitudinal profile data was collected by a South Dakota-type Profiler on each wheel path of both driving and passing lanes, and were later reduced to International Roughness Index (IRI) statistic. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to compare the mean IRI values with respect to the curing compound application rate. It was found that a single curing compound application results in lower as-constructed IRI values, but double application helps to decrease roughness development in the long run on some sections, possibly due to lower differential autogenous volume change of concrete. .
     Mustaque  Hossain, Kansas State University, mustak@ksu.edu
     Zahidul Q. Siddique, Kansas State University
     William H. Parcells, Kansas Department of Transportation

03-2334 - Investigation of Tender Zone in Compaction of Coarse-Graded Superpave HMA Mixes
Tender hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixes have been observed and experienced by paving contractors for many years. However, during the field compaction of coarse-graded Superpave mixes, a ?tender zone?, not a true tender mix, is sometimes experienced. The tender zone is range of mix temperatures during which the mix exhibits instability during roller action. There have been many possible causes of the tender zone presented including differences in lab and production aging, mix moisture, low dust to asphalt ratio, increased asphalt binder film thickness, and a temperature differential with the lift. A study was conducted to document and evaluate field mixes exhibiting the tender zone to determine the possible cause(s) for its occurrence. Documentation included mix, production, and construction related items. Laboratory evaluation consisted of mix gradation and volumetric testing along with Superpave asphalt binder testing on the project asphalt binder before and after steam distillation. Project results failed to clearly identify one particular reason for the tender zone occurrence. However, it is felt that the tender zone was a result of field short-term aging being less than design and increased asphalt binder film thickness acting in conjunction with an inherent temperature differential within the lift.
Michael Shane Buchanan, Mississippi State University, shaneb@engr.msstate.edu
Larry Allen Cooley Jr., National Center for Asphalt Technology

03-2391 - Investigation of Self-Consolidating Concrete
Conventional concrete tends to present a problem with regard to adequate consolidation in thin sections or areas of congested reinforcement, which leads to a large volume of entrapped air voids and compromises the strength and durability of the concrete. Using self-consolidating concrete (SCC) can eliminate the problem, since it was designed to consolidate under its own mass. This study examined several mixture designs in the laboratory; the goal was to create mixtures with desirable flow characteristics that did not require additional consolidation yet provided adequate compressive strength, low permeability, shrinkage control, and resistance to cycles of freezing and thawing. The results provided a foundation for determining if SCC could be produced on a commercial scale using locally available materials at two concrete plants. SCC from one plant was used in a field application for a small bridge in a residential area. The results showed that with tweaking of the mixture proportions, SCC can be produced successfully and provide many benefits to the transportation agencies and the construction industry.
Celik Ozyildirim, Virginia Transportation Research Council, celik@virginiadot.org
D. Stephen Lane, Virginia Transportation Research Council

03-2494 - Evaluation of Infared Ignition Furnace for Determination of Asphalt Content
This study evaluated the Troxler Model 4730 infrared ignition furnace as compared to a standard Thermolyne ignition furnace. Comparisons conducted on a single unit of each furnace type were based on correction factor for aggregate loss during ignition, accuracy and variability of the measured asphalt content, and aggregate degradation during ignition. Forty-eight samples, representing two nominal maximum aggregate sizes (9.5 and 19.0 mm), four aggregate types (granite, crushed gravel, limestone and dolomite) and two asphalt contents (optimum and optimum plus 0.5 percent asphalt content) were tested in each furnace. The results indicated that the correction factors for aggregate loss during ignition were significantly different for each type of furnace, thus requiring a separate calibration for each type of furnace. Practically, the differences for all but the 9.5 mm NMAS limestone and both dolomite mixtures are less than 0.1 percent. The samples at optimum plus 0.5 percent asphalt content were tested using the calibration factors developed for a particular mix/furnace combination. The results were analyzed in terms of accuracy (bias) and variability (standard deviation). Neither the measured bias? nor standard deviations for the two types of furnaces were significantly different. Results from four sieve sizes (NMAS, 4.75, 2.36 and 0.075 mm) were evaluated for aggregate breakdown. A comparison of the recovered aggregate gradations from both furnaces indicated no significant difference in the degree of aggregate degradation. A round robin should be conducted to confirm that the precision of the infrared furnace is similar to the precision of the standard furnace.
Graham Craft Hurley, National Center for Asphalt Technology, hurlegc@eng.auburn.edu
Brian Douglas Prowell, National Center for Asphalt Technology

03-3169 - Minnesota's High-Performance Concrete Pavements
This report documents the Minnesota Department of Transportation?s (Mn/DOT) development and ongoing implementation of a high performance concrete (HPC) pavement specification. The standard specification is reviewed in detail. The HPC specification includes upgraded requirements for the cement paste, aggregate quality, pavement thickness and corrosive resistant dowel bars. The development of a pilot HPC specification is discussed including the results of a project constructed in 2000. Updated revisions of the specification currently in use are presented. Cost data from projects bid in early 2002 are also included.
Curt M. Turgeon, Minnesota Department of Transportation, curt.turgeon@dot.state.mn.us

03-3204 - Optimizing Opening of PCC Pavements Using Integrated Maturity and Nondestructive Tests
The use of nondestructive testing technique combined with maturity concept to monitor and predict the strength gain of Portland cement concrete is investigated. Stress wave velocities, from which the dynamic modulus of elasticity is calculated, can be related to the strength parameters and static modulus obtained from standard testing on the molded specimens and drilled cores. When these results are combined with the maturity parameters the predictive power is significantly improved. In this investigation, the lab tests on molded specimens and cores were carried out with the simplified free-free resonant column method and the field tests on concrete slabs were performed with a hand-held device called the portable seismic pavement analyzer. Experimental studies have been on low, medium and high-strength concrete mixes under different curing regimes and conditions. Based on these experiments, relationships between the dynamic modulus and the strength parameters as well as the maturity are proposed. The technique has shown to be a rapid, simple and economic means for optimizing concrete mix design, quality control/quality assurance of concrete construction and determining the time required before a repaired or newly constructed structure is ready for use.
Soheil Nazarian, University of Texas, El Paso, nazarian@utep.edu
Deren Yuan, University of Texas, El Paso

03-3406 - Application of Infrared Imaging and Ground-Penetrating Radar for Detecting Segregation in Hot-Mix Asphalt Overlays
Particle size and temperature segregation of any type are serious problems in hot-mix asphalt and typically result in poor performance, poor durability, shorter life, and higher maintenance costs of the pavement. This paper presents a summary of results and recommendations from three projects in Texas in which infrared imaging and ground-penetrating radar were used to examine the uniformity of the pavement mat. Both techniques have significant advantages over currently used nuclear density techniques in that they provide virtually 100 percent coverage of the new surface. The effectiveness of both the infrared and radar techniques was evaluated by taking measurements on new overlays at the time of placement, coring, then identifying relationships between changes in the infrared and radar data with changes in the measured volumetric and engineering properties of cores. Analyses of results showed that changes in both infrared and radar data are significantly related to changes in hot-mix asphalt properties such as air void content and gradation. Based upon current Texas Department of Transportation specifications, significant changes in the hot-mix asphalt are expected if temperature differentials of greater than 25 oF (13.9 oC) are measured after placement but before rolling. If the surface dielectric of the in-place mat changes by more than 0.8 for coarse-graded mixes and 0.4 for dense-graded materials, significant changes in mix properties are expected. Given the promising results from this work, agencies should consider implementing both the infrared and ground-penetrating radar technologies.
Stephen Sebesta, Texas Transportation Institute, s-sebesta@tamu.edu
Tom Scullion, Texas Transportation Institute

03-3720 - Using a Ride Quality Index for Construction Quality Control and Acceptance Specifications
Profilographs have traditionally been the tool of choice for measurement of newly constructed pavement roughness. Although only a modest relationship exists between profilograph output and ride quality, the construction industry has been reluctant to consider other methods of measurement. In part, this is because a well-established method exists for using a profilograph trace to pinpoint locations that require diamond grinding. In contrast, inertial profilers offer a way to obtain measurements with proven relevance to ride quality and overall pavement performance via analysis by ride quality indexes. A major drawback to using a ride quality index, as cited by the construction industry, is the lack of a method for pinpointing hot spots in the pavement that should be corrected by a diamond grinder. This paper presents a method for locating isolated rough spots on new pavement and a basis for prioritizing the use of a grinder to improve new pavement smoothness using inertial profiler output. Identification of rough spots is done using an adapted version of the roughness profile called continuous reporting of ride quality. Isolated irregularities are located by reporting a ride quality index on all possible road segments of a given length. The rough spots located by this method provide a direct snapshot of where events occurred on the pavement that penalize the overall ride quality most, which provides feedback to the road builder that can be used to examine the paving process. A Diamond Grinding Simulation is used to ensure that corrective action is only implemented at locations where a grinder would actually improve the ride quality.
Michael J Swan, Dick Corporation
Steven M. Karamihas, University of Michigan, stevemk@umich.edu

03-3850 - Technology for Quality Assurance of New Pavement Thickness
ABSTRACT Accurate measurement of pavement thickness is an essential aspect of the quality assurance of new pavement construction. Current methods involving the use of cores are time consuming and provide a very limited representation of the overall pavement structure. The overall objective of the work described in this paper has been to rapidly determine the average pavement thickness on a newly constructed section to within 0.1 inch of the true value, without extensive reliance on cores. The effort has been divided into two tasks?one for asphalt pavement and one for concrete pavement. The asphalt task has focused on two adaptations of ground penetrating radar (GPR), one involving the use of an air-launch horn antenna, and one using dual ground-coupled antennas in a common midpoint (CMP) measurement mode. The concrete task has focused on the GPR CMP method, and on adaptations of conventional impact-echo. The work has included laboratory testing on small slabs and simulated pavement materials, testing at research pavement test facilities, and testing on newly constructed pavements in California. The pavement thickness data has been correlated with thickness results obtained from over 200 cores taken at points in the test areas. The results show that, with proper implementation, the proposed methods can successfully achieve the desired QA objectives. The paper describes the techniques that were evaluated, the testing that was conducted, and the results of correlation with core data.
     Kenneth R Maser, Infrasense, Inc., info@infrasense.com
     T. Joe Holland, California Department of Transportation
     Roger  Roberts, Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc.
     John  Popovics, University of Illinois
     Ariadna  Heinz, Radar Solutions International, Inc.

03-4014 - Study of Effectiveness of PCC Curing Compounds
Many different spray-on compounds are available for curing concrete, including newer products that are intended to address the environmental concerns associated with high volatile organic compound (VOC) contents. A laboratory study was conducted to examine the effectiveness of different types of curing compounds in retaining water for hydration, promoting concrete strength and reducing permeability relative to classic curing techniques, such as plastic sheeting and ponding, and to the use of no curing treatment. Comparisons of moisture loss, compressive strength, permeability, and capillary porosity were made for samples representing three high-VOC curing compounds, three low-VOC curing compounds, water curing, plastic sheet curing and no curing treatments after 3 days and 28 days of curing. The performance of the six compounds tested varied greatly, but none of the compounds performed as well as the samples cured with water or plastic sheeting, and all compounds performed better than samples with no curing treatment.
Mark B. Snyder, Concrete Paving Association of Minnesota
Nancy M. Whiting, Minnesota Department of Transportation, nancy.whiting@dot.state.mn.us

03-4120 - Effect of Curing Methods on Early-Age and Drying Shrinkage of High-Performance Concrete
The objective of this paper is to present results of a study employed to identify the effect of curing methods on the early-age (autogenous) as well as drying shrinkage of normal as well as lightweight high performance concrete (HPC). The study includes a comparison of available analytical models for predicting early age as well as drying shrinkage with results from tests performed on different mixes. HPC mixes have been developed and evaluated as part of an overall study for the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) to develop and implement mix design and technical specifications for HPC transportation structures, such as pavements and bridges. Moreover, many engineers and agencies have observed that field implementation of HPC is highly dependent on curing and placing conditions. In particular, early-age properties and their relationships to the long term durability as well as the effect of pozzolanic material, such as fly ash and silica fume, on the early-age as well drying shrinkage is also needed. In this paper, the effect of using four different curing methods on the early age performance of high-performance concrete is presented. The curing conditions consisted of 1) Air-dry curing; 2) Burlap or moist curing; and 3) Curing compound. Results show that moist curing (Burlap) should be applied within one hour after placing of concrete to improve early-age performance. For very low w/c+p ratio, fly ash and light weight aggregate could improve the autogenous shrinkage performance. Moreover, current shrinkage models need to be revised to adapt to HPC mixture.
     Hani H Nassif, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, nassif@rci.rutgers.edu
     Nakin  Suksawang, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
     Maqbool  Mohammed, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

Construction - Structures

03-3603 - Unique Construction Aspects of the Maumee River Bridge: Foundations and Substructure
The new I-280 Maumee River Bridge, currently under construction near downtown Toledo, Ohio, is the centerpiece of the largest single project ever undertaken by the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT). This cable-stayed river crossing and its extensive approach and ramp structures incorporate unique engineering solutions to a variety of challenges, including an ODOT goal to maintain four lanes of interstate traffic during peak use times throughout the narrow I-280 corridor. To meet these challenges Figg Engineering Group utilized precast, segmental, concrete box girders built with the span-by-span method. To minimize disruption to traffic, the design accounted for ?top-down? erection techniques with delivery of segments across previously erected spans. The foundation and substructure design minimize construction impacts on traffic and the local community. Single drilled shaft foundations reduce disruptions to interstate traffic as well as alleviate construction noise for the surrounding neighborhoods. Drilled shaft operations are fully inspected before and after concrete placement using down-hole cameras and cross-hole sonic logging. The Contractor?s construction methods eliminate the need for crane-mounted drilling equipment. In some areas of the project, the narrow right-of-way and existing structures necessitated unique design solutions for the approach piers. Large, aesthetically obtrusive permanent straddle bents were eliminated by the use of T-shaped piers made integral with the superstructure and through the design of innovative temporary straddle bents. The temporary straddle bents incorporate portions of the permanent piers eventually to be constructed at those locations.
Wade Sterling Bonzon, Figg Bridge Inspection, Inc., wbonzon@figgbridge.com

03-4529 - Simplified Analysis of Heat Curved Steel Girders
Heat curving is commonly used in the fabrication of curved structural steel bridge girders. A two-dimensional superposition analysis known as the Duhamel Analogy was used for numerical modeling in the development of the AASHTO code provisions. This iterative analysis can take into consideration multiple heat /cool cycles, initial residual stresses, temperature-dependent material properties and the non-linear temperature distribution across the girder cross-section This paper describes a simplified analysis based on the Duhamel Analogy that can be carried out using ?hand calculations?. Results obtained from this method are within 15% of that obtained using Duhamel Analogy or three-dimensional, non-linear, finite element solution. The background, basis and steps required for the proposed analysis are described and an illustrative numerical example presented. The proposed analysis may be used to estimate curvatures or to determine the maximum fabrication temperature/ heating width for a single heat/cool cycle for steels such as high performance steel (HPS) not covered by the current AASHTO provisions.
Antoine Gergess, University of Balamand
Rajan Sen, University of South Florida, sen@eng.usf.edu

Facilities, Equipment Design, and Performance

03-3780 - Evaluation of Highway Signs with Truss Supports
This paper reports on a study of highway signs supported by vertical trusses. A large component of the loading on these trusses is due to wind. Recent changes in the design specifications have led to increased wind pressures. Review of current signs that have performed acceptably has shown that they often do not meet the new specification requirements. The work reported in this study has involved a review of the present design approach, development of a more rigorous stability analysis and modifications to the design approach now used. The stability analysis has resulted in increased stability capacities for use in the design. The work has addressed how existing signs can be reviewed and modified if necessary to meet the new specification requirements. This work can be used in both the review of existing signs and the design of new signs.
     Michael R. DelGrego, University of Connecticut
     John T. DeWolf, University of Connecticut, dewolf@engr.uconn.edu
     Jun  Yang, GM2 Associates

03-4372 - Wind Load Provisions in 2001 Support Specifications
Abstract: The AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals (Supports Specifications) have been revised in its entirety through a major research project conducted under the auspices of the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP Project 17-10). The new document was approved in 1999 by all state DOTs for adoption by AASHTO and was recently published in 2001. A major part of the revisions included new provisions and criteria for wind loads. These provisions differ considerably from those in previous editions of the specifications. A review of the changes in the wind load provisions of the 2001 Supports Specifications is given in this paper. These changes, which are primarily due to the adoption of a new wind speed map that is based on a 3-second gust, could result in a significant increase in the magnitude of wind pressure in hurricane areas and a decrease in inland areas depending upon location and structure type.
Fouad H. Fouad, University of Alabama, Birmingham
Elizabeth A. Calvert, Consulting Engineer, bcalvert@bellsouth.net

Maintenance

Materials - Bituminous Materials

03-2126 - Effectiveness of Lime in Hot-Mix Asphalt Pavements
The pavement community has recognized that moisture damage of hot mixed asphalt (HMA) mixtures has been a serious problem since the early 1960s. Numerous additives have been evaluated with the objective of reducing the potential of moisture damage in HMA mixtures. Lime has been one of the most common additives used to reduce the potential of moisture damage. The Nevada Department of Transportation (NDOT) has been using lime in HMA mixtures since the mid 1980s. The objective of this research was to quantify the improvements in pavement performance that have been realized through the addition of lime to HMA mixtures. The program evaluated field samples and pavement performance data from untreated and lime-treated pavements. The properties of untreated and lime-treated mixtures from field projects in the southern and north-western parts of Nevada indicated that lime treatment of Nevada's aggregates significantly improves the moisture sensitivity of HMA mixtures. The study showed that lime-treated HMA mixtures become significantly more resistant to multiple freeze-thaw than the untreated mixtures. The long term pavement performance data indicated that under similar environmental and traffic conditions, the lime-treated mixtures provided better performing pavements with less requirements for maintenance and rehabilitation activities. The analysis of the impact of lime on pavement life indicated that lime treatment extends the performance life of HMA pavements by an average of 3 years. This represents an average increase of 38% in the expected pavement life.
     Peter E. Sebaaly, University of Nevada, Reno, sebaaly@unr.nevada.edu
     Edgard  Hitti, University of Nevada, Reno
     Dean  Weitzel, Nevada Department of Transportation

03-2702 - Case Study: Preliminary Field Validation of Simple Performance Tests for Permanent Deformation
The SPS-1 premature rutted sections on US281 were used to validate the Simple Performance Tests for permanent deformation: dynamic modulus and repeated load tests and associated rutting indicators, E*/sind and Flow Number (Fn), respectively. The results of this case study show that both dynamic modulus and E*/sind, and repeated load test and Fn can effectively distinguish the good mixes from the bad. This preliminarily validated both Simple Performance Tests for permanent deformation and associated indicators. Furthermore, this paper discusses the possibility of using the load repetition (Nps) corresponding to the initial point of secondary stage to characterize the rutting resistance of asphalt mixes, which is supported by the data presented in this paper.
Fujie Zhou, Texas Transportation Institute, f-zhou@ttimail.tamu.edu
Tom Scullion, Texas Transportation Institute

03-3117 - Superpave Laboratory Compaction Versus Field Compaction
Laboratory compaction is an important part of asphalt mix design. In order for the mix design process to be effective, laboratory compaction must adequately simulate field compaction. This study used mechanical properties measured with the Superpave Shear Tester to evaluate field compaction and laboratory compaction. The field compaction consisted of three test sections with different compaction patterns. The laboratory compaction used the Superpave Gyratory Compactor with adjustments to several parameters. Results of this study indicate that current gyratory protocol produces specimens with significantly different mechanical properties than field cores produced with the same material and compacted to the same air voids. Results also show that adjustments to certain parameters of the gyratory can produce specimens that better simulate the mechanical properties of pavement cores.
     Kamyar Cyrus Mahboub, University of Kentucky, kmahboub@engr.uky.edu
     Robert L. Peterson, Asphalt Institute
     R Michael Anderson, Asphalt Institute
     Eyad A. Masad, Washington State University
     Laith  Tashman, Washington State University

03-3218 - Precision of Shear Tests Used for Evaluating Asphalt Mixtures
Various methods exist to measure the mechanical properties of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA). To be useful such a test must not only measure a property that controls performance, but the test must be repeatable. The Strategic Highway Research Program developed tests using the Superpave Shear Tester (SST) which have been shown to be related to HMA performance. To date repeatability has not been quantified. This paper reports the results of a repeatability study for the measurement of shear stiffness (frequency sweep) and the measurement of permanent shear strain (repeated-load, constant-height testing).
     R Michael Anderson, Asphalt Institute, manderson@asphaltinstitute.org
     Gerald A Huber, Heritage Research Group
     Richard K Steger, Performance Roads Design, Inc.
     Pedro  Romero, University of Utah

03-3275 - Ultrasonic Pulse Wave Velocity Test as Tool for Monitoring Changes in HMA Mixture Integrity due to Exposure to Moisture
In this paper, the ultrasonic pulse wave velocity test is evaluated as a possible tool for monitoring changes in the integrity of mixtures due to moisture conditioning. Two sets of mixtures were prepared. The first group involved fine-grained (above restricted the zone) and coarse-grained (below the restricted zone) limestone mixtures commonly used by the FDOT that were produced with multiple void structure and permeability configurations by varying the gradations and proportions for a common set of aggregates and asphalt cement. The second set of mixtures consisted of three granite-based mixtures commonly used by the FDOT. The results presented show that the small strain modulus obtained with the ultrasonic pulse wave velocity test appears to be sensitive to changes in mixture integrity due to moisture, and therefore may be a possible tool for the characterization of damage in both laboratory and field specimens. Additional work remains to be performed to define better the meaning of the values obtained. However, the current results indicate that the ultrasonic pulse wave velocity test may be used as an indicator of damage in specimens, as well as a quick monitoring device for detecting changes in the integrity of mixtures due to the exposure to moisture.
     Bjorn  Birgisson, University of Florida, bbirg@ce.ufl.edu
     Reynaldo  Roque, University of Florida
     Gale C Page, Florida Department of Transportation

03-3428 - Fatigue Endurance Limit for HIghway and AIrport Pavements
The existence of a fatigue endurance limit has been postulated for a considerable time. With the increasing emphasis on Extended Life Hot Mix Asphalt Pavements (ELHMAP), or perpetual pavements (PP) the verification of the existence of this endurance limit, a strain below which none or very little fatigue damage develops, has become a substantial consideration in the design of these new multi-layered full depth pavements. This paper presents fatigue data collected on a surface and binder mixture that were tested for an extended period of up to 48 million load repetitions at strain levels down to 70 microstrain. The fatigue results are analyzed in the traditional manner, and using the dissipated energy ratio (DER) approach. This analysis shows that there is a difference in the data at normal strain levels recommended for fatigue testing, and at the low strain levels. This difference cannot substantiate an endurance limit using traditional analyses procedures, but the dissipated energy approach clearly shows that there is a distinct change in material behavior at low flexural strain levels that supports the fact that at low strain levels the damage accumulated from each load cycle is disproportionately less than what is predicted from extrapolations of normal strain level fatigue testing. The conclusion of this analysis is that lab testing can verify the existence of a fatigue endurance limit in the range of 90 to 70 microstrain, below which the fatigue life of the mixture is extended indefinitely relative to normal design load considerations.
     Samuel H Carpenter, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, scarpent@uiuc.edu
     Khalid A. Ghuzlan, California Department of Transportation
     Shihui  Shen, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

03-3704 - Refinement of New Generation Open-Graded Friction Course
Open-Graded Friction Course (OGFC) has been used in the United States for over fifty years. In 2000, NCAT research led to a recommended mix design procedure for a New-Generation Open-Graded Friction Course, but the work involved only one aggregate source. Therefore, NCAT is in the process of refining this design procedure to ensure that it is applicable to other aggregate types used in surface mixes throughout the United States. The objectives of NCAT?s current research are to refine and field validate the new-generation OGFC mix design procedure. This work has led to several experiments that are included in this paper. Several objectives have been identified which need to be addressed. Superpave technology and use of the Superpave gyratory compactor (SGC) needs to be incorporated into the mix design procedure. The Cantabro test for durability and resistance to stone loss needs to be adapted to SGC prepared specimens and performance parameters established. The asphalt draindown test, AASHTO T 305-97, which was developed for Stone Matrix Asphalt mixtures, needs to be evaluated for applicability to OGFC mixtures as well. In addition, a method for effectively evaluating air void criteria needs to be investigated. Based upon the research conducted in this study, 50 gyrations of the SGC were selected as the design compactive effort during mix design. Also, the use of SGC prepared samples during the Cantabro test appears to be a reasonable alternative to Marshall compacted samples.
     Kathryn Ann Moore, Auburn University, kamoore@eng.auburn.edu
     Donald E. Watson, Auburn University
     Kevin  Williams, National Center for Asphalt Technology
     L. Allen Cooley Jr., Auburn University

03-3723 - Examination of Gamma-Ray Methods for Measuring Bulk Specific Gravity of Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
There has been much attention given to the determination of the bulk specific gravity (Gmb) of compacted hot-mix asphalt (HMA) specimens. For relatively open-graded HMA mixtures such as those produced by Superpave and stone-matrix asphalt (SMA) design methods, perceived potential shortcomings in traditional tests methods may be pronounced. Recently, a new device was introduced for measuring Gmb, which features the use of gamma-ray technology. In order to evaluate the efficacy of the device, a total of 221 compacted HMA specimens were tested using three test methods: (1) saturated surface dry (AASHTO T-166); (2) vacuum sealing (Corelok); and (3) gamma-ray technology (CoreReader). Each specimen was tested three times in each of the three methods. The specimens represented field-sampled and lab-prepared mixtures, 12.5 mm and 25 mm nominal maximum aggregate sizes, and a variety of aggregates typically used in Arkansas. Test results indicated that statistically significant differences exist between mean Gmb values generated by each of the three testing methods. In general, the vacuum sealing method yielded the lowest Gmb values, followed (in order of low to high) by gamma ray and SSD. Significant differences in the variability of test results were not observed between test methods. In terms of ease of testing and testing variability, the CoreReader gamma-ray device does not appear to offer significant advantages for determining the bulk specific gravity of compacted HMA cores. Further, agencies wishing to replace or allow alternatives to traditional SSD-based tests should consider the impact of test results on existing volumetric property specifications.
     Kevin D Hall, University of Arkansas, kdh3@engr.uark.edu
     Stacy Goad Williams, University of Arkansas
     Frances T. Griffith, University of Arkansas

03-3875 - Application of Weibull Theory in Asphalt Concrete Fatigue Performance Prediction
The objectives of this paper are to present the feasibility of utilizing the Weibull proportional hazards model and the Weibull accelerated failure time model of survival analysis to predict the in-situ pavement fatigue performance from laboratory fatigue test results. A set of WesTrack temperature sensitivity fatigue tests is used as an example to demonstrate how the Weibull proportional hazards model works. An example utilizing the deflection data from a Heavy Vehicle Simulator test is given to verify the feasibility of the failure time model. Additionally, the relationship between mode factor and controlled-deformation fatigue test is also discussed using the same example.
     Bor-Wen  Tsai, University of California, Berkeley, bwtsai@uclink4.berkeley.edu
     John T. Harvey, University of California, Davis
     Carl L. Monismith, University of California, Berkeley

03-4065 - Evaluation of Use of Rapid Triaxial Test In Quality Control of Hot-Mix Asphalt
The objectives of the research are to evaluate the rapid triaxial test method for use in quality control of HMA production. The scope of this study consisted of testing different mixes at two different temperatures and frequencies and evaluating the results. The equipment is rugged and portable, and the hardware and software are easy to handle and do not require extensive technician training. The results from this study show that modulus and phase angle values obtained from testing are sensitive to key mixture components and properties. The coefficients of variation of results obtained from tests conducted at 60oC and 1 Hz are low. Considering the desirable qualities, it seems that this test equipment does stand out as one of the most suitable quality control tools for HMA construction. This equipment should be considered for regular use for quality control testing. However, before it is used, each state DOT must test each of its mixes using an adopted test protocol, and establish target values and allowable variations.
     Jonathan S Gould, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
     Yamini V Nanagiri, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
     Rajib B Mallick, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, rajib@wpi.edu
     Joseph  Petruccelli, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
     William W Crockford, Shedworks, Inc.

03-4156 - Field Evaluation of Asphalt Additives to Control Rutting and Cracking
This paper presents the results of an investigation of the performance of a variety of materials added to asphalt binders and mixtures to change their properties, particularly with respect to rutting and cracking. Two approaches were taken. The first was a field trial of seven polymer and particulate modifiers. The modifiers evaluated included Polymerized Asphalt Cement, Novophalt, Multigrade Asphalt Cement, Polyester Fibers, Neoprene, SBR and Asphalt Rubber. The second approach was a laboratory study of the effects of these modifiers on binder and mixture properties. The field trial showed that different modifiers do yield different performance. Modifiers are not essential to ensure that the pavement will not rut; none of the mixtures evaluated here exhibited appreciable rutting. Dramatic differences were noted in the cracking behavior, however. The newly developed MP-1a binder tests were able to identify binders that would be more prone to cracking.
Rebecca S McDaniel, Purdue University, rsmcdani@purdue.edu
Hussain U Bahia, University of Wisconsin, Madison

Materials - Cement and Concrete

03-2335 - New Hampshire's Concrete Aggregate and Alkali-Silica Reactivity: Statewide Assessment of Fine and Coarse Aggregate
Alkali-silica reactivity (ASR) has become a major concern with regards to long-term durability of concrete structures in New Hampshire. Many concrete structures built by the New Hampshire Department of Transportation (NHDOT) show visible distress. The cause of this distress has been suspected to be deleterious ASR expansion or other destructive processes in conjunction with ASR. Verification of an association between ASR and visual observations of deterioration within the structures has not been done. The objectives of this research were to: Determine the potential for the development of alkali-silica reactivity in New Hampshire?s concrete fine and coarse aggregates; Confirm the presence and extent of alkali-silica reactivity (ASR) in existing NHDOT concrete structures; Evaluate the need for an additional study to determine the amount of admixtures required for the minimization of ASR in new concrete within New Hampshire. This research demonstrated that a significant number of the concrete aggregates within the state of New Hampshire are potentially reactive. The presence of ASR within the laboratory constructed mortar bars made with potentially reactive aggregates was confirmed through petrographic thin section analysis. ASR gel was also confirmed within selected concrete bridges through uranyl acetate UV-light testing as well as core sampling and petrographic thin section analysis. Based on the research findings a phase 2 study is recommended which would evaluate different admixtures for their effectiveness in mitigating the development of ASR in new concrete.
Richard Malcolm Lane, New Hampshire Department of Transportation, dlane@dot.state.nh.us
Marc F Fish, New Hampshire Department of Transportation

03-2831 - Mechanical Properties and Durability of BCO and UTW Concrete
Concrete overlays have been used for pavement and bridge deck rehabilitation for many years. The main objective of this research was to analyze the mechanical properties and durability of several plain and fiber reinforced concrete overlay mixes. Eight different concrete overlay mix designs were investigated in this study. The materials properties investigated were compressive and splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, bond to concrete (with three different surface roughness characteristics), and durability. Freeze-thaw tests were performed to determine the durability of the concrete mixtures used in this study. Strength and stiffness were investigated from 1, 3, 7, and 14 days. Laboratory tests on the strength and stiffness development of eight candidate concrete overlay designs showed that high strength concrete was appropriate for opening overlays to traffic in 24 hours or less, but normal strength concrete may be used if traffic loading may be delayed for 48 or 72 hours. For larger projects, where paving continues over several days, normal strength mixtures may be used when 48 to 72 hours or more of curing can be achieved before traffic loading begins, with high strength mixtures used for the last day?s construction. All of the designs tested appear to have satisfactory strength, stiffness, bond properties, and durability for use in bonded overlay construction. The normal strength concrete is more economical than the high strength concrete, but develops its design properties more slowly.
Norbert Joseph Delatte Jr., University of Alabama, Birmingham, ndelatte@uab.edu
Anshuman Sehdev, University of Alabama, Birmingham

03-3400 - Study of Deterioration in Concrete Pavements Constructed with Slag Coarse Aggregate
In Michigan, sections of an Interstate type pavement are suffering extensive cracking and joint deterioration in spite of the fact that they were constructed only 10 years ago in 1992. An adjacent section constructed the following year using comparable design features and materials remains in good condition with little sign of visual distress. A study was conducted to determine, if possible the cause of the observed distress. In all, cores from nine different projects were evaluated, all of which were made with iron blast furnace slag coarse aggregate and natural fine aggregate containing chert constituents. The analyses conducted included stereo and petrographic microscopy, and chemical extractions to determine levels of exchangeable and soluble potassium and sodium, as well as sulfates. The findings indicate that in distressed pavement sections, the chert constituents in the fine aggregate are deleteriously alkali-silica reactive (ASR) whereas these same constituents are not deleterious in the sections rated as fair. Further, the distressed sections all had sulfate levels significantly higher than predicted by the mixture design. It is hypothesized that in addition to the ASR in the fine aggregate, that dissolution of the calcium sulfide dendrites in the slag coarse aggregate is providing excess internal sulfates, resulting in infilling of the air-void system with ettringite and potentially sulfate attack. The exact nature of the deterioration mechanism(s) is not fully understood, but it seems clear that some type of interaction exists between the ASR and excess sulfates.
     Thomas John Van Dam, Michigan Technological University, tvandam@mtu.edu
     Karl W. Peterson, Michigan Technological University
     Lawrence L. Sutter, Michigan Technological University
     Meghan E. Housewright, Michigan Technological University

03-3702 - Construction of Lithium-Fly Ash Concrete Pavement Test Sections on Interstate 90 in South Dakota
A series of pavement test sections incorporating various lithium admixtures for mitigation of potential alkali-silica reactivity (ASR) were constructed on Interstate 90 in South Dakota. Both the coarse and fine aggregates used in the concrete were reactive, based on field performance. A modified Class F fly ash was also used in some of the test sections to evaluate the effectiveness of using lithium / fly ash combinations for mitigation, which may provide greater control of potential ASR while improving concrete mix economics. No significant problems were encountered during construction that involved the production of 14 different concrete mixes while maintaining slip form-paving operations. The test sections have been inspected yearly since construction was completed in 1996. ASR cracking became apparent in the control section, which had only a low alkali Type V cement, and in the section containing the lowest lithium nitrate dosage in the summer of 2002. No cracking is apparent in any other test section.
     Daniel P Johnston, South Dakota Department of Transportation, dan.johnston@state.sd.us
     David B Stokes, FMC Corporation
     Roger W. Surdahl, Federal Highway Administration

03-3884 - Analysis and Design of Bridge Approach and Transition Slabs in New Jersey
The objective of this paper is to present results of a study employed to identify the probable causes of cracking, location of cracks, factors influencing crack development, and to recommend new design alternatives that could reduce or eliminate crack development in bridge approach and transition slabs. The study included the development of a nonlinear finite element model that is based on soil-structure interaction using commercial computer software, ABAQUS, as well as field observations. The field study is conducted to determine the extent and probable causes of crack development in approach and transition slabs in different bridge sites. The data collected from field observations were compared with those predicted by the finite element model to determine its reliability. Subsequently, a parametric study was developed in order to study the sensitivity of the model to several design and soil parameters. Based on the results of the finite element model, several design alternatives were developed, analyzed, and compared to determine their effectiveness in reducing the possibility of crack development under higher vehicular loads. Two new design alternatives are recommended. The new design alternatives are planned for implementation on the Doremus Avenue Bridge project and will be instrumented and monitored for long term performance. Preliminary result show two types of transverse cracks: 1) in one lane in the transition slab due to overloading and 2) in all lanes including shoulders due to embankment bulging and settlement. General design provisions are formulated for a new design of approach slabs.
     Hani H Nassif, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, nassif@rci.rutgers.edu
     Nick  Vitillo, New Jersey Department of Transportation
     Talat  Abu-Amra, Rutgers University

03-3960 - Environmental Influence of Early-Age Response of PCC Pavement
Early age deformation of PCC pavements caused by built-in gradients and warping can result in a permanent loss of support, which significantly influences its long term performance. This study quantifies the environmental influences on early age response of PCC pavement. Two adjacent slabs located in the driving lane of west bound I-490 in Rochester, New York, were instrumented to monitor concrete temperature and strain, and pavement deformation. Immediately after slab placement, readings from temperature, strain and displacement sensors were taken continuously for 48 hours. Additionally, in the sixth week after placement a twenty-four hour cycle was investigated. Since the pavement was placed during hot weather conditions, the resulting positive built-in gradient and high shrinkage caused a significant upward deformation after 48 hours. In the sixth week, warping caused the pavement to experience a permanent loss of support independent of the temperature gradients which were observed. The phenomenon of permanent loss of support was also investigated by means of FWD Testing. Test results of the FWD were very consistent with the other data describing the pavement deformation. Vibrating wire strain measurements were used to investigate the increase of tensile stresses in the top strata due to upward curling. Significant tensile stresses solely due to environmental factors were determined.
     Shad M. Sargand, Ohio University, ssargand@bobcat.ent.ohiou.edu
     Luis Julian Bendana, New York State Department of Transportation
     Issam  Khoury, Ohio University
     Ricky  Selle, Ohio University

03-4059 - Texas Department of Transportation's Effort to Improve Specifications in Mitigating Concrete Distress due to Alkali-Silica Reactivity
This paper describes the effort of the Texas Department of Transortation (TxDOT) to address premature distress in concrete due to alkali silica reactivity (ASR). In the past, TxDOT relied on ASTM C 227, "Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations (Mortar-Bar Method)" to screen for potentially reactive aggregates. However, in recent years, TxDOT identified several structures exhibiting early distress due to ASR even though the aggregates used in some of the members exhibiting ASR distress had passed the ASTM C 227 test. TxDOT decided to utilize ASTM C 1260 testing for its aggregate evaluation for ASR potential and conducted testing on aggregates from over 250 aggregate sources. This evaluation revealed that over 70 % of fine aggregate and about half of the coarse aggregate sources showed over 0.1 % expansion. To address potential ASR problems in our concrete, special provisions were developed which assume that all aggregates are potentially reactive. Extensive testing was conducted to identify the best options to mitigate ASR potential in Texas. The use of Class F ash proved to be effective in suppressing ASR potential. In Texas, a substantial amount of Class C fly ash is produced and there is a demand for Class C fly ash in the concrete industry. Class C fly ash does not mitigate ASR to an acceptable level. However, this investigation shows that the use of other mineral/chemical admixtures with Class C fly ash could mitigate the ASR potential.
Gerald David Lankes, Texas Department of Transportation, glankes@dot.state.tx.us
Moon C Won, Texas Department of Transportation

Materials - Mineral Aggregates

03-2645 - Design of Granular Pavement Layers Considering Climatic Conditions
A new simple design approach will be described that utilizes test results from the Repeated Load Triaxial Apparatus to establish the risk level of permanent deformations in the unbound granular layers (UGL) in pavement constructions under consideration of the seasonal effects. From this data a serviceability limit line (plastic shakedown limit) stress boundary for the unbound granular materials (UGM) was defined for different moisture contents, where below this line the material will behave stable. The serviceability limit line was applied in a finite-element (FE)-program FENLAP to predict whether or not stable behaviour occurs in the UGM. To calculate the stress in the UGL, a nonlinear elastic model (Dresden Model), which is described in the paper, was implemented into the FE-program. The effects of changing moisture content during spring-thaw period and asphalt temperature on pavement structural response were investigated. Additionally, permanent deformation calculations for the UGL were performed taking the stress history into consideration. The results clearly demonstrate, that for pavement constructions with thick asphalt layers there is no risk of rutting in the granular base, even at high number of load repetitions. The study showed, that the proposed design approach is a very satisfactory simple method to assess the risk against rutting in the UGL, even without the calculation of the exact permanent deformations of the pavement construction.
     Sabine  Werkmeister, Dresden University of Technology, Germany, s.werkmeister@gmx.de
     Ralf  Numrich, Dresden University of Technology, Germany
     Andrew  Dawson, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom
     Frohmut  Wellner, Dresden University of Technology, Germany

03-3404 - Validated Model for Predicting Field Performance of Aggregate Base Courses
The International Center for Aggregates Research (ICAR) Research Project 502 focused on pavement layers of unbound aggregate proper representation in mechanistic pavement models. The research team developed models for the resilient and permanent deformation behavior from the results of triaxial tests conducted at the Texas Transportation Institute (TTI) and at the University of Illinois. The studies indicate that the unbound aggregate base (UAB) material should be modeled as nonlinear and cross-anisotropic to account for stress sensitivity and the significant differences between vertical and horizontal moduli and Poisson?s ratios. Field validation data were collected from a full-scale pavement test study conducted at Georgia Tech. The validation of the anisotropic modeling approach was accomplished by analyzing conventional flexible pavement test sections using the GT-PAVE finite element program to predict responses to load in the UAB layer and comparing these predicted responses to the measured values. Laboratory testing of the aggregate samples was conducted at the University of Illinois, and characterization models were developed for the stress sensitive, cross-anisotropic aggregate behavior. With nonlinear anisotropic modeling of the UAB, the resilient behavior of pavement test sections was successfully predicted for a number of response variables. In addition, the stress sensitive, cross-anisotropic representation of the base was shown to greatly reduce the horizontal tension computed in the granular base when compared to a linear isotropic representation.
     Erol  Tutumluer, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, tutumlue@uiuc.edu
     Dallas N. Little, Texas Transportation Institute
     Sung-hee  Kim, Texas Transportation Institute

03-4489 - Field Evaluation of Stiffness of Unbound Aggregate Base Layers in Inverted Flexible Pavements
Unbound aggregate base layers in a quarry haul road in Georgia were characterized using embedded sensors and in-situ seismic testing. Two sections of the road were constructed as inverted pavements, one using a South African Roads Board method and the other using a conventional Georgia Department of Transportation method. A third was constructed using a traditional method. Miniaturized versions of traditional crosshole and downhole seismic tests were conducted to determine the stiffness of each base layer. Horizontally propagating compression and shear waves were measured under four different loading conditions to determine Young?s moduli and Poisson?s ratios of the base. An increase in stiffness with an increase in load was measured. Additionally, it was found that the Georgia and South Africa sections had similar stiffness. Surprisingly, the traditional section was found to be somewhat stiffer than the other sections. This higher stiffness is thought to be due to a prolonged period of compaction prior to construction of the unbound aggregate base layer, essentially transforming the traditional section into an inverted pavement. Using the vertical total normal stresses computed from ILLI-PAVE, a value of 0.3 for the earth pressure coefficient was found to be reasonable for this material in determining the radial total normal stresses. The radial effective normal stresses were calculated from the radial total normal stresses and experimentally determined pore-water pressures. Additionally, the negative pore-water pressures in the partially saturated granular base had a significant impact on the stiffness of the UAB layer, especially under small load levels.
     Brady R Cox, University of Texas, Austin
     Kenneth H Stokoe II, University of Texas, Austin, k.stokoe@mail.utexas.edu
     Ronald G. Terrell, United States Airforce
     Dwyane  Lewis, Georgia Department of Transportation

Pavement Design and Performance

03-2074 - Direct Mehtod for Evaluating Structural Needs of Flexible Pavements Based on FWD Deflections
A direct and simple method (YONAPAVE) for evaluating the structural needs of flexible pavements is presented. It is based on the interpretation of measured FWD deflection basins using mechanistic and practical approaches. YONAPAVE estimates the effective Structural Number (SN) and the equivalent subgrade modulus independently of the pavement or layer thicknesses. Thus, there is no need to perform boreholes which are expensive, time consuming and disruptive to traffic. Knowledge of the effective SN and the subgrade modulus, together with an estimate of the traffic demand, allows for the determination of the overlay required to accommodate future needs. YONAPAVE simple equations can be solved using a pocket calculator, making it suitable for rapid estimates in the field. The simplicity of the method, and its independence of major computer programs, makes YONAPAVE suitable for estimating the structural needs of a road network using FWD data collected on a routine or periodic basis along the network roads. With increasing experience and confidence, YONAPAVE can be used as the basis for the structural evaluation and overlay design at the project level.
Mario S Hoffman, YONA Engineering Consulting & Management Ltd., Israel, marioh@yonaltd.com

03-2253 - Network Pavement Evaluation Using Falling Weight Deflectometer and Ground-Penetrating Radar
ABSTRACT Nondestructive testing has become an integral part for evaluation and rehabilitation strategies of pavements in recent years. Pavement evaluation employing the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) and the Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) can provide valuable information about pavement performance characteristics and be a very useful tool for project prioritization purposes and estimation of construction budget at the network level. FWD deflection testing is an accurate tool for determining pavement structural capacity and estimating the required thickness of overlays and hence is an accurate tool for planning for or estimating required current and future construction budgets. GPR is the only tool that a highway agency may use to develop an inventory of pavement layers thicknesses in the most efficient manner possible. By estimating pavement layer thicknesses and stiffness properties more reliable projections of network rehabilitation strategies and needs can be established, thus resulting in cost effective use of available funds. Traditional obstacles for the use of FWD and GPR in pavement evaluation at the network level used to be expenses involved in data collection, limited resources and lack of simplified analysis procedures. This paper presents Indiana experience in pavement evaluation with the FWD and GPR at the network level. A network level FWD and GPR testing program is implemented as a part of a study to overcome those traditional obstacles. This testing program included Interstate Highways I ? 64, I ? 65, I ? 69, I ? 70 and I ? 74 and a number of U.S. Roads and State Routes. It is concluded that network level testing employing the FWD and GPR is a worthwhile, technically sound program that will provide a baseline of structural capacities of in ? service pavements in Indiana. Periodical generation of necessary data will be useful for determining how best to quantify structural capacity and estimate annual construction budget. FWD data on 2200 lane miles of the INDOT network is recommended annually for network level pavement evaluation. Only three FWD tests per mile are recommended. This amount of testing can easily be conducted in one testing season. The information collected will allow the equivalent of 100% coverage of the whole network in 5 years. GPR data is recommended to be collected once every 5 years (if another thickness inventory is needed), after the successful network thickness inventory conducted in this study. GPR data collection is also recommended at the project level and for special projects. Both FWD and GPR data is recommended to be used as part of the pavement management system (together with automated collected data of international roughness index, IRI, pavement condition rating, PCR, rut depth, pavement quality index, PQI, and skid resistance). Key Words: pavement layer thickness, FWD, GPR, deflection, backcalculation of layer moduli, effective structural number, remaining life, reliability, factor of safety.
     Samy  Noureldin, Indiana Department of Transportation, snoureldin@indot.state.in.us
     Karen Zhu  Zhu, Indiana Department of Transportation
     Shuo  Li, Indiana Department of Transportation
     Dwayne  Harris, Indiana Department of Transportation

03-2657 - Thermal Aspect of Frost-Thaw Pavement Dimensioning: In Situ Measurement and Numerical Modeling
The thermal behavior of pavements in winter has a major influence on their dimensioning. The Paris-based Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussees (LCPC) and the ministere des Transports du Quebec (MTQ) have models to forecast the propagation of frost and thaw phenomena. They have developed a collaborative project to validate these models on an experimental pavement. This pavement was constructed in Quebec in 1998 and its thermal behavior was monitored for three years. Pavements with road foundations treated with hydraulic binders and asphalt pavements were selected. Two test beds of each type were constructed. One of these two test beds was thermally insulated by a layer of extruded polystyrene, while the second was not. This paper presents the assessments of the SSR, GEL1D and CESAR ? GELS thermal models. It describes: - the models, - the site and the temperature conditions of the three winters, - the pavement structures and their physical properties, - the instrumentation set up, - the analysis and comparison of the results of the models among themselves and in relation to the observations conducted on the pavements. These work shows that the models used provide a satisfactory estimate of frost depths, with less than 10% deviation observed between the measured and calculated depths. The deviations between the results of the different models are explained by the differences between the modeling principles. The size and quality of the database constituted under this project will make it possible to improve the thermal forecasting models through more in-depth studies.
Patrick Lerat, Laboratoire Central des Ports et Chaussees, France, patrick.lerat@lami.enpc.fr

03-3222 - Design and Construction of Rock Cap Roadways-A Case Study in Northeast Washington
In recent years the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) has deviated from its normal policy of correcting frost heaving and thawing problems on state highways. WSDOT?s traditional approach for frost design has been to place crushed stone base at least half the depth of the frost penetration. This approach has served WSDOT well on the majority of its highway system, however, other measures were sought to mitigate extensive frost related problems in northeast Washington. To isolate the flow of water from the pavement structure, a capillary break using a free draining aggregate or ?rock cap? layer was used on projects during the past several years. The particular material used was a 75 mm (3 in.) maximum sized material with 0 to 15 percent passing a 12.5 mm (1/2 in.) sieve. The open graded nature of the rock cap provides a positive drainage blanket so that excess water can be eliminated from the roadway structure thus eliminating frost heaving and thaw weakening problems. However, constructing with a large stone material presents special construction considerations particularly pertaining to the stability of the material. WSDOT?s construction experience is detailed in this study as well as a summary of rock cap performance in Washington State
     Jeffrey S. Uhlmeyer, Washington State Department of Transportation, uhlmeyj@wsdot.wa.gov
     James S. Lovejoy, Washington State Department of Transportation
     Joe P. Mahoney, University of Washington
     Linda M. Pierce, Washington State Department of Transportation
     Gordon D. Olson, Washington State Department of Transportation
     Mike R. Gribner, Washington State Department of Transportation

03-3431 - Comparison of Nondestructive Testing Devices to Determine In Situ Properties of Asphalt Concrete Pavement Layers
Many highway agencies use non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques for pavement evaluation. These include the falling weight deflectometer (FWD), the road-rater, the Dynaflect, the seismic pavement analyzer (SPA), the portable SPA (PSPA), the ground penetrating radar (GPR), and the dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP). Experience has shown that these techniques may not provide an accurate characterization of the in situ material properties of AC pavement layers. NCHRP sponsored research to identify and develop methods for determining the in situ modulus and thickness of asphalt concrete (AC) pavement layers and resurfacing of Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements that improve the reliability of NDT techniques. NDT data were collected using the FWD, SPA, PSPA, GPR and DCP at ten test sites (selected to represent typical pavement sections) in the winter and summer seasons. Data from the field tests were processed according to established methodologies. Cores from these sites were obtained for laboratory testing to determine certain physical and mechanical response parameters for use in data interpretation. Laboratory tests were conducted to reconcile stiffness measured by field techniques to a temperature and rate of loading characteristic of vehicular traffic. The laboratory tests included the ultrasonic wave velocity method, mechanical tests (resilient modulus and the uniaxial frequency sweep), and mixture property tests. Considering the state-of-the-practice of all the NDT technologies evaluated, the FWD and GPR were the best combination to effectively measure the AC modulus and thickness of thick AC over granular base. The SPA/PSPA also provided AC moduli that compared well with FWD moduli.
Athar Saeed, Applied Research Associates, Inc., asaeed@ara.com
Jim Hall, ERES Consultants, Inc.

03-4203 - Discrete and Continuous Deflection Testing of Runways at Hartsfield Atlanta International Airport
The measurement of deflection characteristics is a key feature in the evaluation of pavements. Deflections are used to evaluate pavement moduli, relative stiffness, load transfer and when used periodically, a rate of deterioration and remaining life. This paper describes the comprehensive deflection testing program that was conducted on Runways 9L/27R and 8R/26L, both Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements (JRCP), at the Hartsfield Atlanta International Airport. A Heavy Weight Deflectometer (HWD) was used to measure deflections at discrete locations on slab interiors, transverse joints, longitudinal joints, and slab corners. A Rolling Dynamic Deflectometer (RDD) was used to measure continuous deflection profiles along three longitudinal lines on both runways. Prior to Fall 2001, all pavement deflection testing was performed using a Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD). Comparisons of the equipment, loading mechanisms, and measured interior slab deflections are presented herein.
     Dennis James Turner, University of Texas, Austin, dturner@mail.utexas.edu
     Jeffrey Lik-Yeung Lee, University of Texas, Austin
     Kenneth H Stokoe II, University of Texas, Austin
     Richard L Boudreau, Boudreau Engineering Inc.
     Quintin B Watkins, Aviation Consulting Engineers, Inc.
     George K. Chang, Transtec Group, Inc.

Pavement Management and Rehabilitation

03-2844 - Enhancing Pavement Management System Through Deficiency Analysis of As-Built Database
The capability of systematically collecting and recording as-built data for pavement layers benefits highway departments in many aspects. A well established pavement as-built database provides tools for maintaining an up-to-date corporate record of the physical pavement structures, keeping track of unit construction costs, helping to reduce the amount of pavement excavations when undertaking pavement investigations, providing inputs for FWD analysis, and calibrating pavement performance models in the Pavement Management System (PMS), etc. One of the tasks in the development of the 2nd generation PMS for New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) is to review and analyze the existing pavement as-built database with regard to its completeness and quality. An algorithm and a computer program was developed to scan and categorize the as-built data into five status levels: complete, partially complete - missing original construction data, partially complete - missing recent rehabilitation data, questionable data and no data. The results of this analysis can be used to recommend improvement for the data collection process and to guide further investigations such as coring and Ground Penetration Radar (GPR) tests. This paper describes the general approach used in the analysis, the definition of the data status levels, the results in terms of the distribution of the pavement as-built data and the significance of the analysis from the viewpoint of the pavement management system. Recommendations on improving the future data collection process are also provided.
     Riaz Ahmed Khan, Stantec Consulting Ltd, rahmed@stantec.com
     Khaled  Helali, Stantec Consulting Ltd
     Andris  Jumikis, New Jersey Department of Transportation
     Zhiwei  He, Stantec Consulting Ltd

03-2947 - Assessing Impact of Bus Traffic on Pavement Maintenance Costs in the City of Los Angeles
City of Los Angeles engineers have observed that lanes carrying Mass Transit Authority (MTA) bus traffic deteriorate at a faster rate than similar lanes without bus traffic. The increased rate of deterioration results in greater maintenance costs compared to similar lanes without bus traffic. To properly apportion the greater maintenance costs, City engineers require an objective method for quantifying the impact of MTA bus traffic. This paper presents multiple evaluation techniques that may be used to quantify the effect of buses in terms of increased deterioration rates and greater rehabilitation costs. State-of-the-art techniques using the results of deflection testing and pavement condition surveys are presented. Data collection procedures, methods for condition and structural analyses, and life cycle costing procedures are provided. A case study using data collected from the City is presented. This study indicates an average yearly additional maintenance cost of $800/lane mile due to MTA bus traffic, excluding associated costs for curb and gutter or maintenance hole adjustments.
     Mohamed Y. Shahin, U.S. Army Engineering Research and Development Center
     James A Crovetti, Marquette University
     Kurt Alexander Keifer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, kurt.keifer@erdc.usace.army.mil

03-3190 - Development of Adaptive Performance Models for Oklahoma Airfield Pavement Management System
The pavement performance models developed to support the web-based Oklahoma airfield pavement management system (APMS) are presented. Substantial efforts were extended to tailor the pavement condition index (PCI) based family modeling method to fit the deterioration characteristics of airfield pavements in Oklahoma. The statistical and engineering significance of seven levels of pavement factors were investigated and pavement factors that affect pavement deterioration significantly were identified as family variables. Asphalt concrete (AC) pavement families were formed by sorting pavement function, distress cause, and pavement thickness while portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements were divided into families according to pavement function and climate zone. The family polynomial curves are able to reveal the expected deterioration patterns and are logical in engineering principle. Rooted by an adaptive database, the system accepts expert opinion and automatically integrates effects of major maintenance and rehabilitation (M&R) activities into modeling. The performance models were configured to have potential ability to include the effects of PM treatments. Based on the up-to-date database, the performance models update forecasts automatically.
Jie Yuan, University of Oklahoma
Michael A. Mooney, University of Oklahoma, mooney@ou.edu

03-3372 - Creating Asset Management Reports from Local Agency Pavement Management System
Reporting assets is an important component of an asset management system. While asset management covers managing the whole range of assets an agency owns, several types of reports need to be produced depending on the types of assets and the purpose of reporting. These reports are used to convince the lawmakers and taxpayers to allocate needed maintenance and rehabilitation funds. Reports produced from an individual management system such as, a pavement management system (PMS), a bridge management system, or a sewer management system, can be combined to support reporting on all assets combined. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the production of asset management reports using a local agency PMS. The study was conducted utilizing the Metropolitan Transportation Commission Pavement Management System (MTC-PMS) which is used by many local agencies to support managing pavement networks of cities and counties in the San Francisco Bay Area. It is evident from the study that several useful reports supporting an overall asset management system can be created using this PMS.
Shameem A. Dewan, Texas Transportation Institute, s-dewan@ttimail.tamu.edu
Roger E. Smith, Texas A&M University

03-4439 - Using Historical Pavement Condition Data to Calibrate South Carolina's Performance Prediction Models
This paper evaluates the prediction accuracy of default models assigned in the South Carolina Department of Transportation?s Pavement Management System. A total of 22 S-shaped prediction models were examined, including seven for Present Serviceability Index (PSI), seven for Pavement Distress Index (PDI) and eight for Pavement Quality Index (PQI). Prediction accuracy was assessed by calculating an average percent deviation between observed and predicted performance indices. 28 interstate highway pavement sections, ranging from 1.54 to 22.86 miles long, were selected as a representative sample of the interstate highway network. Annual performance indices were calculated for each section between the years 1994 and 2000, except for 1998. A total of 162 data points representing each performance index were collected. During the evaluation period, eight different rehabilitation actions were performed on these pavements. Using a best-fit procedure to re-assign default models, prediction accuracy was significantly improved. Prediction models for four of these rehabilitation activities were also calibrated using a least squares regression analysis for 11 of the 28 pavement sections. The calibrated models are not only more accurate than the default models, they also extend the predicted life span of each rehabilitation action.
     Charles  Pierce, University of South Carolina, piercec@engr.sc.edu
     Ronald L Baus, University of South Carolina
     Dajun  Wang, University of South Carolina

Pavement Management, Design, and Performance

03-2210 - Pavement Management Systems: Past, Present, and Future
This paper evaluates the progress made over the past 3 decades in the key elements of pavement management systems and projects the significant improvements that are expected over the next 10 years. Eight specific elements of a pavement management system are addressed: functions, data collection and management, pavement performance prediction, economic analysis, priority evaluation, optimization, institutional issues, and information technology. Among the significant improvements expected in pavement management systems over the next 10 years are improved linkage among, and better access, to databases; systematic updating of pavement performance prediction models using data from ongoing pavement condition surveys; seamless integration of multiple management systems of interest to a transportation organization; greater use of geographic information and global positioning systems; increasing use of imaging/scanning and automatic interpretation technologies; and extensive use of formal optimization methods to make the best use of limited resources.
Ram B Kulkarni, URS Corporation, ram_kulkarni@urscorp.com
Richard W Miller, Kansas Department of Transportation

03-2424 - Development of Flexible Pavement Performance Prediction Model Based on Pavement Data
Successful pavement management system requires estimates or predications of future pavement performance so that rational comparisons may be made among alternative courses of action. The prediction model is used in preparing long - range budget to maintain the highway system at a specified minimum performance level and to determine the consequences of future funding levels. The aim of this study is to determine the projected rate of deterioration of pavement segments in District 5, Florida. Data related to historical traffic, speed limit, rainfall, temperature, work-mix, historical condition ratings, distress types, pavement thickness, age, and most recent year-to-year rating decline were collected for pavements. One of the nine counties in District 5 was selected as the pilot county. Based on the data of the pilot county, analysis was made to determine the appropriate response variable and predictor variables in the prediction model. Statistical tests and regression were performed in the determination of final predictor variables. A prediction model was developed for the pilot county. Comparing the predicted condition ratings with actual ones checked the validity of the pilot model. After the pilot model was investigated and verified, the regression modeling approach was employed on all nine counties in District 5. The proposed models include predictor variables such as current year condition rating, slope of degradation of previous years, and current annual average daily traffic. An estimated pavement remaining life based on the condition survey is also presented according to the predictive condition rating.
     Shiou-San  Kuo, University of Central Florida
     Hesham Sayed Mahgoub, University of Central Florida, hmahgoub@mail.ucf.edu
     Lorrie  Hoffman, University of Central Florida

03-2739 - Performance Prediction Models of Pavement Highway Network in Alberta
Pavement engineers and managers should be aware of the economical consequences of selecting a particular rehabilitation and construction alternative. Pavements are complex physical structures that responds to the influence of numerous environmental, subsurface, and load-related variables and their interactions. Subsequently, the task of predicting the multi-faceted responses of pavements to the series of interrelated variables is complex and must be addressed by using a number of assumptions and simplifications. This paper presents a methodology used to develop deterioration models for the primary highway network in the province of Alberta, Canada, based on statistical stratification of the highway network. A major assumption is that a road is considered to be deteriorated and reached its service life limit when its roughness reaches a specified trigger value. The International Roughness Index (IRI) was taken as the roughness measurement in this research, with a value of IRI equal to 2.8 considered the trigger for initiating rehabilitation action. Approximately 1,700 road segments comprise the primary highway network in Alberta. Each of these segments has its own set of attributes. A stratification methodology was used to classify and group these segments into eight groups, each possessing the same characteristics in terms of its life cycle. The developed deterioration models are currently integrated into the Pavement Management System (PMS) of Alberta Infrastructure. This paper describes the various components of the developed deterioration models, the factors affecting pavement performance and service life, and the statistical stratification process of highway pavement networks.
Ossama Salem, University of Cincinnati, o.salem@ndsu.nodak.edu

03-3341 - Ten-Year Performance of Dowel Bar Retrofit: Application, Performance, and Lessons Learned
The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) maintains 28,589 lane kilometers (17,765 lane miles) of pavement. The majority (89 percent) of these pavements are either asphalt or chip sealed surfaces. Of the more than 3,057 lane kilometers (1900 lane miles) of Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) pavement, 85 percent of these miles are on the interstate system (most of which are in urban environments). Of the entire interstate system, half the miles are PCC pavement. WSDOT has been rehabilitating its aged PCC pavements, over the last 10 years, using dowel bar retrofit, panel replacements, and diamond grinding. These pavements have been rehabilitated, using dowel bar retrofit, well beyond their original design life of 20 years. The first dowel bar retrofit application in Washington State was constructed as a test section in 1992, since that time, WSDOT has dowel bar retrofitted over 350 lane kilometers (225 lane miles). This paper will describe dowel bar retrofit performance, application, and lessons learned over the last 10 years.
     Jeffrey S. Uhlmeyer, Washington State Department of Transportation
     Linda M. Pierce, Washington State Department of Transportation, piercel@wsdot.wa.gov
     Joe P. Mahoney, University of Washington

Railroads - Railway Design, Construction, and Maintenance

03-4212 - Deep Mixing Technology to Mitigate Ground Vibration Induced by High-Speed Trains
ABSTRACT: The ground vibrations induced by high-speed train have drawn engineering attention in recent years, since high-speed trains are growing rapidly throughout Europe, East Asia, and North America. Deep mixing technology, that has a wide range of application in the construction industry, has been used to mitigate the detrimental effects of vibration caused by high-speed trains. Deep mixing is a ground modification technology that mixes in situ soil with a cementitious material to produce overlapped columns using specially designed equipment with paddles and/or augers. This paper aims to examine and synthesize the latest advancements in Europe and Japan when deep mixing technology is used as the countermeasure against vibration control. A brief summary of excitation mechanism caused by a moving load that provides the basis for train induced vibration is discussed. The current state of practice to analyze and predict the response of treated ground based on the analytical and numerical solutions are presented along with a summary of rare field data from Sweden and Japan. The rigorous numerical solutions with 3-D modeling capabilities have demonstrated effective tools to predict improvement effect of deep mixing as a countermeasure for vibration control.
Ali Porbaha, California Department of Transportation, ali_porbaha@dot.ca.gov

Safety

03-3077 - Development of Trailer-Attenuating Cushion for Variable Message Signs and Arrow Boards
In 1993, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) adopted a policy that requires all roadside features placed within the clear zone to be evaluated according to the guidelines contained in NCHRP Report 350. Variable message sign trailers and arrow board trailers have never been tested under these safety evaluation guidelines. A full-scale crash test and a review of work zone accident studies clearly indicates that these trailers are a serious roadside hazard and they are struck in approximately 20 percent of all work zone intrusion accidents. An attenuating cushion was developed that safely treats the full range of these trailers. Two full-scale crash tests of the Trailer Attenuating Cushion were conducted to verify that the new designs meet NCHRP Report 350 guidelines. The new safety treatments are believed to be relatively inexpensive to build and easy to deploy. The new systems should reduce the severity of many ran-off-road crashes without a major increase in the cost of using variable message signs and arrow boards.
     Dean L. Sicking, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
     John R. Rohde, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, jrohde@unl.edu
     John D. Reid, University of Nebraska, Lincoln

03-3097 - Box-Beam Burster Energy-Absorbing Tube: Bridge Pier (BEAT-BP) Protection System
A new box-beam Burster Energy Absorbing Tube Bridge Pier (BEAT-BP) protection system was successfully crash tested according to the safety performance criteria presented in NCHRP Report No. 350. The system is comprised of two BEAT energy absorbing crash cushions and a frame that envelops the bridge piers. Because of the close proximity to the piers, the system has a significantly smaller footprint that other available options. Three crash tests were considered necessary to evaluate the BEAT-BP system and were conducted successfully: pickup truck CIP transition test at bridge pier (test designation 3-21), pickup truck CIP test at connection between crash cushion and tubular frame structure (test designation 3-38), and pickup truck end-on test for the crash cushion (test designation 3-31). A total of four crash tests were conducted, including one failed test (test no. BP-2). The BEAT-BP protection system performed satisfactorily in all three required crash tests, meeting all evaluation criteria set forth in NCHRP Report 350 guidelines.
     John R. Rohde, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, jrohde@unl.edu
     Dean L. Sicking, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
     John D. Reid, University of Nebraska, Lincoln

03-3146 - Design and Testing of Tie-Down Systems for Temporary Barriers
Two tie-down systems for use with temporary barriers were developed and successfully crash tested according to the safety performance criteria provided in the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report No. 350, Recommended Procedures for the Safety Performance Evaluation of Highway Features. Both tie-down systems were designed to limit barrier displacements as well as to prevent the deflected barriers from pulling adjacent sections off of the bridge deck edge. The first system consisted of a steel tie-down strap concept for use with the Iowa F-shape temporary concrete barrier. At each barrier joint, the trapezoidal-shaped strap retained the vertical pin and was attached to the concrete bridge deck using two drop-in anchors. For this design, LS-DYNA computer simulation modeling was utilized to optimize the size and shape of the steel strap. One full-scale vehicle crash test was conducted on the tie-down strap concept according to the TL-3 impact safety standards found in NCHRP Report No. 350. In the test, the tied-down barrier system safely redirected the pickup truck, and the test was judged acceptable. The second tie-down system was developed for use with Iowa?s steel H-section temporary barrier. For this system, the original barrier connection detail was modified in order to simplify barrier attachment to one another as well as to more easily accommodate deviations in horizontal and vertical alignment. At each barrier joint, two steel shear plates were positioned within an opening on the adjacent barrier section and held in place with two steel drop pins. Four steel angle brackets were welded to the barrier?s base at every joint in order to allow for the barriers to be rigidly attached to the concrete bridge deck using drop-in anchors. Two full-scale vehicle crash tests were conducted on the steel H-barrier system according to the TL-3 impact safety standards found in NCHRP Report No. 350. In the first test, vehicle snagging was observed, resulting in vehicle rollover. Following minor design modifications, the barrier system was retested. For the second test, the tied-down steel barrier system safely redirected the pickup truck, and the test was judged acceptable. Keywords: Crash Testing, Work-Zone Safety, Longitudinal Barrier, Construction Barrier, Temporary Barrier, and Tie-Down System
     Bob Wayne Bielenberg, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, rbielenberg2@unl.edu
     Ronald K. Faller, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
     John D. Reid, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
     John R. Rohde, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
     Dean L. Sicking, University of Nebraska, Lincoln

03-4025 - Review of Cable and Wire Rope Barrier Design Considerations
Cable or wire rope barrier was being used in the 1940?s and maybe earlier for vehicle containment. Through the years the designs have changed but engineers continue to see cable barrier as an inexpensive barrier for use in some roadside applications. Recently cable or wire rope has gained popularity as a median barrier for the prevention of cross-median accidents. Cross-median accidents are typically violent collisions with a high probability of multiple serious injuries and deaths. Thus, the design trend is gravitating towards providing positive vehicle containment in wider medians for which barriers have not historically been warranted. These wide medians are typically scheduled for construction of additional travel lanes whenever increased highway capacity is needed. Wire rope often provides a cost effective solution for this design scenario. In-field experience with cable or wire rope barriers has identified areas for design improvement. It is desirable that cables remain taught to improve interaction with the vehicle, reduce dynamic deflections, and minimize maintenance. Additionally, reduced design deflections results in more potential application sites. Recent research discussed in this paper demonstrates that such improvements are practical and cost effective. Besides the initial tension in the wire ropes, other factors that can have a significant influence on dynamic deflections include post spacing and horizontal curvature. Computer simulations on cable barriers with varying post spacing and horizontal curvatures were used to develop guidelines for expected design deflections. Finally, full-scale crash tests have been completed on a new, cost-effective cable terminal system, and a brief review of the design and crash test results are included.
     Dean C. Alberson, Texas Transportation Institute, d-alberson@tamu.edu
     Roger P Bligh, Texas Transportation Institute
     C. Eugene  Buth, Texas Transportation Institute
     D. Lance Bullard, Jr., Texas Transportation Institute

03-4421 - Guardrail Connection for Low-Fill Culverts
A W-beam guardrail system was developed for attachment to the top slab of a low-fill concrete culvert. The guardrail design was constructed with a single, 2.66-mm thick W-beam rail totaling 53.34 m in length. Over the culvert, the W-beam rail was supported by W152x13.4 by 946-mm long steel posts spaced 952.5-mm on center. The research study included dynamic bogie testing on steel posts attached to a rigid foundation, computer simulation modeling with BARRIER VII, and two full-scale vehicle crash tests. The crash tests used ?-ton pickup trucks and were conducted in accordance with the Test Level 3 (TL-3) requirements specified in National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report No. 350, Recommended Procedures for the Safety Performance Evaluation of Highway Features. One test was successfully conducted on the guardrail system with the back side of the posts positioned 457 mm away from the front of the culvert?s headwall. The second test was unsuccessfully performed on the guardrail system with the back side of the posts positioned 25 mm away from the front of the headwall. The safety performance of the W-beam guardrail system attached to the top of a low-fill concrete culvert was determined to be acceptable according to the TL-3 criteria found in NCHRP Report No. 350. Recommendations for the final placement of the guardrail system with respect to the culvert headwall were also made.
     Karla A. Polivka, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, kpolivka2@unl.edu
     Ronald K. Faller, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
     John D. Reid, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
     John R. Rohde, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
     Dean L. Sicking, University of Nebraska, Lincoln

Soils, Geology, and Foundations

03-2362 - Comparison of Triaxial Compression Test Results with and Without Suction Control
This paper compares results of triaxial compression tests on a silty soil obtained using a fully automated suction-controlled test apparatus and those obtained using a conventional triaxial testing apparatus. The focus is on the comparison of unsaturated soil strength parameters obtained from tests with and without suction control. Results of the study show that for a silty soil (Minco Silt), multistage triaxial tests without suction control produced results similar to those obtained from multistage constant water content suction-controlled tests. However, while similar behavior was observed for samples with similar moisture contents, differences in the resulting shear strength parameters were observed. The somewhat favorable comparison of multistage results from tests with and without suction control is partly attributed to the fact that shear-induced changes in suction were observed to be relatively small in Minco Silt specimens. For soils with appreciable clay content, significant shear-induced changes in matric suction may result in less favorable comparisons of shear strength.
Gerald A. Miller, University of Oklahoma, gamiller@ou.edu
Perinpanathan Jude Ananthanathan, University of Oklahoma

03-2509 - Filter Paper Column for Measuring Transient Suction Profiles in Expansive Clay
A new and inexpensive experimental system for measuring suction profiles during transient moisture movement processes in unsaturated expansive clays is developed. The system relies on measurements of total suction using the non-contact filter paper technique at several ?stations? located along a one-dimensional soil column. Performance of the system is demonstrated for a column of compacted Ca2+-smectite undergoing evaporation at the top boundary under ambient laboratory conditions for 91 days. Results show that the system is most applicable during latter stages of drying when the rate of moisture movement is slow enough to be adequately captured by the required seven-day measurement interval and the suction values are large enough to offset scatter. Final water content and suction profiles are determined gravimetrically and compared with values obtained from the filter paper measurements. Desiccation cracking does not significantly affect the accuracy of the filter paper system. The research forms an experimental basis for the development or verification of theoretical models aimed at predicting moisture flux for in-situ expansive soil subject to infiltration or evaporation processes.
William J Likos, University of Missouri, Columbia, likosw@missouri.edu
Ning Lu, Colorado School of Mines

03-2881 - Design of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composite Piles Under Vertical and Lateral Loads
Conventional pile materials, such as steel, concrete, and wood, can encounter serious corrosion problems in industrial and marine environments. Deterioration of steel, concrete, and wood piling systems has cost the military and civilian marine/waterfront civil engineering communities billions of dollars to repair and replace. Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites have desirable properties for extreme environments, as they are non-corrosive, non-conductive, and lightweight. Different types of FRP composite piles are currently under research investigation, and some have been introduced to the marketplace. FRP composites have been used as internal reinforcement in concrete piles; as external shells for steel, concrete, and timber piles; and as structural piles such as FRP pipe piles, reinforced plastic piles, and plastic fender piles. The different ways of constituting FRP composite piles result in different behavioral effects. As FRP structural piles have anisotropic properties, low section stiffness, and high elastic to shear modulus ratios, they have different behavior in load-displacement relations under vertical and lateral loads. This paper examines current design methods for conventional piles to determine the validity for FRP composite piles, and presents some new design methods specific to FRP structural piles based on research work conducted by the authors.
     Jie  Han, Widener University, jxh0305@mail.widener.edu
     J David Frost, Georgia Institute of Technology
     Vicki L. Brown, Widener University

03-2959 - Engineering Performance of FRP Composite Piling
The deterioration of concrete, steel, and timber is a serious hindrance to construction in marine and corrosive environments. Composite materials such as fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP) can offer performance advantages for construction in these environments. In the last decade, piling made of FRP composites has been used experimentally throughout North America. However, composites face obstacles because they do not have a long track record of use in civil engineering structures. This paper presents a comprehensive summary of current research, testing, design, and practice of composite piling. The engineering performance of the available FRP composites is evaluated for use in piling applications.
Magued G. Iskander, Polytechnic University of New York, iskander@poly.edu
Sherif Hanna, Polytechnic University of New York

03-3268 - Design Assessment of Founders-Meadows GRS Abutment Structure
Front abutment Geosynthetic-reinforced soil (GRS) walls were constructed to support the shallow footings of a two-span bridge and the embankment approach roadway structures. A key element in the design was the need to support the concentrated loads from the bridge footing and to alleviate the "bump at the bridge" problem. Past publications summarized the design, materials, construction, instrumentation, and the overall movement performance of this structure. The focus of this paper is to evaluate the loading response of the front abutment GRS walls under service loads based on measured lateral earth pressures against the wall facing, vertical earth pressures, and geogrid reinforcement strains. Data was collected during construction of the GRS wall, during five stages of bridge superstructure construction, and during 33 months after opening the bridge to traffic. This paper also presents an assessment of the design of the front abutment GRS walls. The overall loading response of the front abutment GRS wall was excellent. The measured loads, especially behind the wall facing, were below the design values, and the overall stability of the structure as measured by load eccentricity was much greater than projected in the design. Finally, preliminary recommendations for design and construction of future GRS abutments are provided.
     Naser Mahmood Abu-Hejleh, Colorado Department of Transportation, naser.abu-hejleh@dot.state.co.us
     Jorge G. Zornberg, University of Colorado, Boulder
     Victor  Elias, V Elias & Associates
     Jim  Watcharamonthein, University of Colorado, Boulder

03-3286 - Variation in Moduli of Base and Subgrade with Moisture
The modulus of each layer in a pavement system is one of the primary parameters that affect the performance of the pavement. The determination of the layer moduli under different moisture regimes is an essential task in any pavement design. Seismic nondestructive testing technology based on the use of stress waves has been shown to be a useful tool in achieving this goal. Results from laboratory and field tests conducted on a number of roads indicate that the modulus of base and subgrade materials is strongly affected by moisture. Based on these studies, laboratory tests have been developed to quantify the moisture susceptibility of base and subgrade materials. These suggested methods are also described.
Deren Yuan, University of Texas, El Paso
Soheil Nazarian, University of Texas, El Paso, nazarian@utep.edu

03-3437 - Measuring Sulfate in Subgrade Soil: Difficulties and Triumphs
The accurate analysis of sulfate sulfur in subgrade soil is essential for road construction involving calcium based stabilizers (lime/cement). The objective is to determine if other tests give better results in a more timely fashion than Texas? current sulfate test method, Tex-620-J: a gravimetric method. Literature review and interviews with commercial soil testing labs revealed three techniques to compare to Tex-620-J which include: ion chromatography, conductivity and colorimetry/spectrophotometry. Soils were manufactured with known sulfate (gypsum and anhydrite) concentrations and sent to labs that performed gravimetric analysis and ion chromatography. Conductivity and colorimetric testing were performed in house. Testing showed that Tex-620-J is not very precise, creating the need for an unrealistic number of samples to obtain an accurate estimate of the sulfate concentration. To define the 95 percent confidence interval for true sulfate content to within ?10 percent of the true known value for a concentration of 5000 ppm, Tex-620-J requires 43 tests and ion chromatography requires 14 tests. The colorimeter achieved the desired results in only one test, based on sulfate standard solutions. Results of this study revealed the difficulty with obtaining accurate sulfate measurements in the lab and indicated a few inexpensive pieces of equipment that can be used in both a field and laboratory setting may yield better results.
     J. Patrick Harris, Texas Transportation Institute, pat-harris@tamu.edu
     Tom  Scullion, Texas Transportation Institute
     Stephen  Sebesta, Texas Transportation Institute
     German  Claros, Texas Department of Transportation

03-3457 - Effect of Soil Suction on Resilient Modulus of Subgrade Soil Using Filter Paper Technique
This study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of soil suction on resilient modulus of subgrade soil specimens collected form a section located on I-40 in Canadian County, Oklahoma. A total of 18 undisturbed specimens were tested for resilient modulus and soil suction. Two resilient modulus models, i.e., deviatoric stress model (Model 1), and deviatoric and confining pressure model (Model 2), were used and evaluated for their reliability in predicting the resilient modulus. Results showed that Model 2 has better reliability than Model 1. Findings from resilient modulus and soil suction tests showed that resilient modulus increased as total and matric suctions increased. The variation of resilient modulus with both suctions revealed the same trends. As a result, osmotic suction has less significant effect on resilient modulus. Moreover, the effect of moisture content on resilient modulus was investigated, but no specific trend has been observed between resilient modulus and moisture content. It is due to the fact that different moisture contents may produce same matric suction depending on the soil water characteristic curve (SWCC), and thus same state of stress that controls resilient modulus. Consequently, it may be concluded that resilient modulus correlated better with soil suction than with moisture content, and soil suction plays a vital role on the mechanical behavior of cohesive subgrade soils beneath a pavement.
     Naji Najib Khoury, University of Oklahoma, naj@ou.edu
     Musharraf  Zaman, University of Oklahoma
     James B Nevels, Oklahoma Department of Transportation
     Jerry  Mann, Oklahoma Department of Transportation

03-3801 - Evaluation of Seasonal Effects on Subgrade Soils
ABSTRACT One objective of the Federal Highway Administration Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) program is to determine the effects of the environment on pavement performance. The LTPP instrumentation program includes Seasonal Monitoring Program (SMP) instrumentation to monitor the seasonal variations of moisture, temperature and frost penetration. Findings from the SMP instrumentation are to be incorporated into future pavement design procedures. This paper presents general expressions for the seasonal variations of temperature, moisture and matric suction and incorporates the variations in expressions for the seasonal variations of resilient modulus for unbound materials. Data from SMP instrumentation at the Ohio Test Pavement (U.S. 23, Delaware County, Ohio) and other reported results were analyzed in order to develop empirical equations. Other factors such as frost penetration, depth of water table and drainage conditions are also discussed. A method is proposed for predicting the seasonal variations of factors that affect pavement subgrade soils for use with pavement design.
Andrew G. Heydinger, University of Toledo, aheyding@eng.utoledo.edu

03-3969 - Laboratory Evaluation of the GeoGauge for Compaction Control
The use of nuclear methods for compaction control is increasingly problematic for state highway agencies. Regulatory and safety issues have prompted agencies such as the New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department (NMSHTD) to look for non-nuclear alternatives for compaction control. This paper describes a laboratory evaluation of one such commercially available device known as the GeoGauge. The GeoGauge measures soil stiffness, arguably, a much more viable engineering parameter than the moisture-density relations currently used. The GeoGauge was found to measure soil stiffness as advertised. Results relating moisture, density, and stiffness were found to be consistent with earlier research on compaction and mechanical strength of soils. However, because of the dynamic nature of the measurement obtained via the GeoGauge and associated boundary constraints, the ability to obtain a target value for stiffness in the laboratory has proved to be elusive. Because of the promising nature of the GeoGauge technology, and because it measures a true engineering mechanical property, a paradigm shift may be necessary for implementation for field compaction control. Future specifications for compaction using this technology may require specific controls of moisture and requirements concerning compaction equipment with stiffness monitoring, via the GeoGauge.
     Lary R. Lenke, University of New Mexico, lary@unm.edu
     R. Gordon McKeen, McKeen Consulting Engineers LLC
     Matt P. Grush, Gannett Fleming West, Inc.

03-4505 - Recent Developments in Characterizing Durability of Stabilized Materials
For higher volume roadways, stabilization of the base layers is common practice in many areas of Texas. The amount of cement or any other stabilizer used to modify a base material is generally selected based on the unconfined compressive strength of the treated layer. Recent studies have found that high initial strength does not necessarily guarantee acceptable long-term performance. The trend in recent years has been to design stabilized bases with lower strength requirements. In these instances the highway agencies often have concerns about material durability. The commonly used durability test is the abrasion type brush test which measures the resistance to twelve cycles of wetting and drying or twelve cycles of freezing and thawing. The tests are not commonly used by highway agencies because of the length of time needed to run the test and because of the variability of results. Recent research indicates that these durability problems are not related to abrasion, but to a chemical reversal of the stabilization process. Highway agencies have also reported problems with ?disappearing? stabilizers after a few years in service. In most of these cases, it has been postulated that the reversal of stabilization is associated with moisture intrusion within the stabilized materials. A new test procedure called the Tube Suction Test (TST) is proposed to identify stabilized materials with potential problems. In TST the dielectric properties of the surface of the sample are measured over 10-days. This paper presents a comparison between the results of the TST and standard durability tests.
Imran M Syed, Thomas L. Brown Associates, P.C., isyed@tlbinc.org